The Phase Rule and Its Applications. Alexander Findlay

and under any given pressure the temperature and volume may vary. If, however, two of the factors are arbitrarily fixed, then the third factor can only have a certain definite value; at any given values of temperature and pressure a given mass of gas can occupy only a definite volume.

      Suppose, however, that the system consists of water in contact with vapour. The condition of the system then becomes perfectly defined on arbitrarily giving one of the variables a certain value. If the temperature is fixed, the pressure under which water and water vapour can coexist is also determined; and conversely, if a definite pressure is chosen, the temperature is also defined. Water and vapour can coexist under a given pressure only at a definite temperature.

      Finally, let the water and vapour be cooled down until ice begins to separate out. So soon as the third phase, ice, appears, the state of the system as regards temperature and pressure of the vapour is perfectly defined, and none of the variables can be arbitrarily changed without causing the disappearance of one of the phases, ice, water, or vapour.

We see, therefore, that in the case of some systems two, in other cases, only one of the independent variables (temperature, pressure, concentration) can be altered without destroying the nature of the system; while in other systems, again, these variables have all fixed and definite values. We shall therefore define the number of degrees of freedom^[18] of a system as the number of the variable factors, temperature, pressure, and concentration of the components, which must be arbitrarily fixed in order that the condition of the system may be perfectly defined. From what has been said, therefore, we shall describe a gas or vapour as having two degrees of freedom; the system water—vapour as having only one; and the system ice—water—vapour as having no degrees of freedom. We may also speak of the variability or variance of a system, and describe a system as being invariant, univariant, bivariant, multivariant,^[19] according as the number of degrees of freedom is nought, one, two, or more than two.

      A knowledge of its variability is, therefore, of essential importance in studying the condition and behaviour of a system, and it is the great merit of the Phase Rule that the state of a system is defined entirely by the relation existing between the number of the components and the phases present, no account being taken of the molecular complexity of the participating substances, nor any assumption made with regard to the constitution of matter. It is, further, as we see, quite immaterial whether we are dealing with "physical" or "chemical" equilibrium; in principle, indeed, no distinction need be drawn between the two classes, although it is nevertheless often convenient to make use of the terms, in spite of a certain amount of indefiniteness which attaches to them—an indefiniteness, indeed, which attaches equally to the terms "physical" and "chemical" process.^[20]

      The Phase Rule.—The Phase Rule of Gibbs, which defines the condition of equilibrium by the relation between the number of coexisting phases and the components, may be stated as follows: A system consisting of n components can exist in n + 2 phases only when the temperature, pressure, and concentration have fixed and definite values; if there are n components in n + 1 phases, equilibrium can exist while one of the factors varies, and if there are only n phases, two of the varying factors may be arbitrarily fixed. This rule, the application of which, it is hoped, will become clear in the sequel, may be very concisely and conveniently summarized in the form of the equation—

      P + F = C + 2, or F = C + 2 - P

      where P denotes the number of the phases, F the degrees of freedom, and C the number of components. From the second form of the equation it can be readily seen that the greater the number of the phases, the fewer are the degrees of freedom. With increase in the number of the phases, therefore, the condition of the system becomes more and more defined, or less and less variable.

      Classification of Systems according to the Phase Rule.—We have already learned in the introductory chapter that systems which are apparently quite different in character may behave in a very similar manner. Thus it was stated that the laws which govern the equilibrium between water and its vapour are quite analogous to those which are obeyed by the dissociation of calcium carbonate into carbon dioxide and calcium oxide; in each case a certain temperature is associated with a definite pressure, no matter what the relative or absolute amounts of the respective substances are. And other examples were given of systems which were apparently similar in character, but which nevertheless behaved in a different manner. The relations between the various systems, however, become perfectly clear and intelligible in the light of the Phase Rule. In the case first mentioned, that of water in equilibrium with its vapour, we have one component—water—present in two phases, i.e. in two physically distinct forms, viz. liquid and vapour. According to the Phase Rule, therefore, since C = 1, and P = 2, the degree of freedom F is equal to 1 + 2 - 2 = 1; the system possesses one degree of freedom, as has already been stated. But in the case of the second system mentioned above there are two components, viz. calcium oxide and carbon dioxide (p. 12), and three phases, viz. two solid phases, CaO and CaCO₃, and the gaseous phase, CO₂. The number of degrees of freedom of the system, therefore, is 2 + 2 - 3 = 1; this system, therefore, also possesses one degree of freedom. We can now understand why these two systems behave in a similar manner; both are univariant, or possess only one degree of freedom. We shall therefore expect a similar behaviour in the case of all univariant systems, no matter how dissimilar the systems may outwardly appear. Similarly, all bivariant systems will exhibit analogous behaviour; and generally, systems possessing the same degree of freedom will show a like behaviour. In accordance with the Phase Rule, therefore, we may classify the different systems which may be found into invariant, univariant, bivariant, multivariant, according to the relation which obtains between the number of the components and the number of coexisting phases; and we shall expect that in each case the members of any particular group will exhibit a uniform behaviour. By this means we are enabled to obtain an insight into the general behaviour of any system, so soon as we have determined the number of the components and the number of the coexisting phases.

      The adoption of the Phase Rule for the purposes of classification has been of great importance in studying changes in the equilibrium existing between different substances; for not only does it render possible the grouping together of a large number of isolated phenomena, but the guidance it affords has led to the discovery of new substances, has given the clue to the conditions under which these substances can exist, and has led to the recognition of otherwise unobserved resemblances existing between different systems.

      Deduction of the Phase Rule.—In the preceding pages we have restricted ourselves to the statement of the Phase Rule, without giving any indication of how it has been deduced. At the close of this chapter, therefore, the mathematical deduction of the generalization will be given, but in brief outline only, the reader being referred to works on Thermodynamics for a fuller treatment of the subject.^[21]

      All forms of energy can be resolved into two factors, the capacity factor and the intensity factor; but for the production of equilibrium, only the intensity factor is of importance. Thus, if two bodies having the same temperature are brought in contact with each other, they will be in equilibrium as regards heat energy, no matter what may be the amounts of heat (capacity factor) contained in either, because the intensity factor—the temperature—is the same. But if the temperature of the two bodies is different, i.e. if the intensity factor of heat energy is different, the two bodies will no longer be in equilibrium; but heat will pass from the hotter to the colder until both have the same temperature.

      As with heat energy, so with chemical energy. If we have a substance existing in two different states, or in two different phases of a system, equilibrium can occur only when the intensity factor of chemical energy is the same. This intensity factor may be called the chemical potential; and we can therefore say that a system will be in equilibrium when the chemical potential of each component is the same in all the phases in which the component occurs. Thus, for example, ice, water, and vapour have, at the triple point, the same chemical potential.

      The potential of a component in any phase depends not only on the composition of the phase, but also on the temperature and the pressure (or volume).