The Phase Rule and Its Applications. Alexander Findlay

the amount of water present or the volume of the vapour is great or small; if the pressure on the vapour is altered while the temperature is maintained constant, either the water or the vapour will ultimately disappear; the former by evaporation, the latter by condensation. At any given temperature within certain limits, therefore, water and vapour can exist permanently in contact with one another—or, as it is said, be in equilibrium with one another—only when the pressure has a certain definite value. The same law of constancy of vapour pressure at a given temperature, quite irrespective of the volumes of liquid and vapour,^[1] holds good also in the case of alcohol, ether, benzene, and other pure liquids. It is, therefore, not unnatural to ask the question, Does it hold good for all liquids? Is it valid, for example, in the case of solutions?

      We can find the answer to these questions by studying the behaviour of a solution—say, a solution of common salt in water—when placed in the Torricellian vacuum. In this case, also, it is observed that the pressure of the vapour increases as the temperature is raised, but the pressure is no longer independent of the volume; as the volume increases, the pressure slowly diminishes. If, however, solid salt is present in contact with the solution, then the pressure again becomes constant at constant temperature, even when the volume of the vapour is altered. As we see, therefore, solutions do not behave in the same way as pure liquids.

      Moreover, on lowering the temperature of water, a point is reached at which ice begins to separate out; and if heat be now added to the system or withdrawn from it, no change will take place in the temperature or vapour pressure of the latter until either the ice or the water has disappeared.^[2] Ice, water, and vapour, therefore, can be in equilibrium with one another only at one definite temperature and one definite pressure.

      In the case of a solution of common salt, however, we may have ice in contact with the solution at different temperatures and pressures. Further, it is possible to have a solution in equilibrium not only with anhydrous salt (NaCl), but also with the hydrated salt (NaCl, 2H₂O), as well as with ice, and the question, therefore, arises: Is it possible to state in a general manner the conditions under which such different systems can exist in equilibrium; or to obtain some insight into the relations which exist between pure liquids and solutions? As we shall learn, the Phase Rule enables us to give an answer to this question.

      The preceding examples belong to the class of so-called "physical" equilibria, or equilibria depending on changes in the physical state. More than a hundred years ago, however, it was shown by Wenzel and Berthollet that "chemical" equilibria can also exist; that chemical reactions do not always take place completely in one direction as indicated by the usual chemical equation, but that before the reacting substances are all used up the reaction ceases, and there is a condition of equilibrium between the reacting substances and the products of reaction. As an example of this, there may be taken the process of lime-burning, which depends on the fact that when calcium carbonate is heated, carbon dioxide is given off and quicklime is produced. If the carbonate is heated in a closed vessel it will be found, however, not to undergo entire decomposition. When the pressure of the carbon dioxide reaches a certain value (which is found to depend on the temperature), decomposition ceases, and calcium carbonate exists side by side with calcium oxide and carbon dioxide. Moreover, at any given temperature the pressure is constant and independent of the amount of carbonate or oxide present, or of the volume of the gas; nor does the addition of either of the products of dissociation, carbon dioxide or calcium oxide, cause any change in the equilibrium. Here, then, we see that, although there are three different substances present, and although the equilibrium is no longer due to physical, but to chemical change, it nevertheless obeys the same law as the vapour pressure of a pure volatile liquid, such as water.

      It might be supposed, now, that this behaviour would be shown by other dissociating substances, e.g. ammonium chloride. When this substance is heated it dissociates into ammonia and hydrogen chloride, and at any given temperature the pressure of these gases is constant,^[3] and is independent of the amounts of solid and gas present. So far, therefore, ammonium chloride behaves like calcium carbonate. If, however, one of the products of dissociation be added to the system, it is found that the pressure is no longer constant at a given temperature, but varies with the amount of gas, ammonia or hydrogen chloride, which is added. In the case of certain dissociating substances, therefore, addition of one of the products of dissociation alters the equilibrium, while in other cases it does not. With the help of the Phase Rule, however, a general interpretation of this difference of behaviour can be given—an interpretation which can be applied not only to the two cases cited, but to all cases of dissociation.

      Again, it is well known that sulphur exists in two different crystalline forms, octahedral and prismatic, each of which melts at a different temperature. The problem here is, therefore, more complicated than in the case of ice, for there is now a possibility not only of one solid form, but of two different forms of the same substance existing in contact with liquid. What are the conditions under which these two forms can exist in contact with liquid, either singly or together, and under what conditions can the two solid forms exist together without the presence of liquid sulphur? To these questions an answer can also be given with the help of the Phase Rule.

      These cases are, however, comparatively simple; but when we come, for instance, to study the conditions under which solutions are formed, and especially when we inquire into the solubility relations of salts capable of forming, perhaps, a series of crystalline hydrates; and when we seek to determine the conditions under which these different forms can exist in contact with the solution, the problem becomes more complicated, and the necessity of some general guide to the elucidation of the behaviour of these different systems becomes more urgent.

It is, now, to the study of such physical and chemical equilibria as those above-mentioned that the Phase Rule finds application; to the study, also, of the conditions regulating, for example, the formation of alloys from mixtures of the fused metals, or of the various salts of the Stassfurt deposits; the behaviour of iron and carbon in the formation of steel and the separation of different minerals from a fused rock-mass.^[4] With the help of the Phase Rule we can group together into classes the large number of different isolated cases of systems in equilibrium; with its aid we are able to state, in a general manner at least, the conditions under which a system can be in equilibrium, and by its means we can gain some insight into the relations existing between different kinds of systems.

      Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Equilibrium.—Before passing to the consideration of this generalization, it will be well to first make mention of certain restrictions which must be placed on its treatment, and also of the limitations to which it is subject. If a system is uniform throughout its whole extent, and possesses in every part identical physical properties and chemical composition, it is called homogeneous. Such is, for example, a solution of sodium chloride in water. An equilibrium occurring in such a homogeneous system (such as the equilibrium occurring in the formation of an ester in alcoholic solution) is called homogeneous equilibrium. If, however, the system consists of parts which have different physical properties, perhaps also different chemical properties, and which are marked off and separated from one another by bounding surfaces, the system is said to be heterogeneous. Such a system is formed by ice, water, and vapour, in which the three portions, each in itself homogeneous, can be mechanically separated from one another. When equilibrium exists between different, physically distinct parts, it is known as heterogeneous equilibrium. It is, now, with heterogeneous equilibria, with the conditions under which a heterogeneous system can exist, that we shall deal here.

      Further, we shall not take into account changes of equilibrium due to the action of electrical, magnetic, or capillary forces, or of gravity; but shall discuss only those which are due to changes of pressure, temperature, and volume (or concentration).

Real and Apparent Equilibrium.—In discussing equilibria, also, a distinction must be drawn between real and apparent equilibria. In the former case there is a state of rest which undergoes continuous change with change of the conditions (e.g. change of temperature or of pressure), and for which the chief criterion is that the same condition of equilibrium is reached from whichever side it is approached. Thus in the case of a solution, if the temperature is maintained constant, the same concentration