The Hellenistic Settlements in the East from Armenia and Mesopotamia to Bactria and India. Getzel M. Cohen

Deportations and Deportees in the Assyrian Empire (Wiesbaden, 1970); the articles “Exile, Assyrian” (A. Malamat) and “Exile, Babylonian” (B. Porten) in Encyclopaedia Judaica; Altheim-Stiehl, Geschichte 158–61; Briant, L’Asie centrale 97; id., Empire perse 446–47.

      64. Ancient table of contents to Diodorus book 17: “How the Branchidae, who of old had been settled by the Persians on the borders of their kingdom . . . ” (trans. Welles); Ael. Varia Hist. 6.14: “Darius . . . dispatched them [i.e., plotters against him] in various directions, sending some to the Indian frontier, others to the Scythian” (trans. Wilson).

      65. See also Briant, L’Asie centrale 97; and Rougemont, IGIAC 206 n. 733.

      66. See Appendix IX.

      67. KTESIPHON was, of course, a very important urban center. On the other hand, it is not clear whether it was a Hellenistic foundation.

      68. On the Iranian plateau see, for example, Meyer, EB¹¹ s.v. “Iran”; Frye, Heritage 1–14; Christensen, Iranshahr 117–35; on the term “Iran” see Frye, Heritage 2–3. For the historical geography of the Iranian plateau see especially Frye, Iran 1–20 (review of ancient and modern sources on pp. 1–5); for the history of the region under Alexander and the Seleucids see pp. 137–75. See also Bickerman in La Persia (1966) 87–117; id. in CHIr 3(1): 3–20; Christensen, Iranshahr 59–63, 135–41; Wiesehöfer, Jahrhunderte 23–139 (bibliography, pp. 144–67); id. in Age of the Parthians 37–49; Capdetrey, Pouvoir 28–30, 38–43, 76–81, 101–4, 267–71.

      69. On the “pays d’en haut” see R. White, The Middle Ground (Cambridge, 1991) X–XI.

      70. Cf. the Theraian colonization of Libya. According to Herodotus (4.153) the total founding population fit into two pentekonters.

      71. See, for example, Christensen, Iranshahr 117.

      72. See, for example, Meyer, EB¹¹ s.v. “Iran”; Frye, Heritage 1–14.

      73. See especially Bickerman in CHIr 3(1): 4–7.

      74. See above, pp. 14–15.

      75. See, for example, Capdetrey, Pouvoir 252–54.

      76. Bickerman in CHIr 3(1): 3.

      77. In CHIr 3(1): xxiv-xxvii. Cf. the minimal Hellenization in Babylonia (Oelsner in Ideologies 183–96).

      78. HC³ 162.

      79. On Hellenistic settlements in the region of the Iranian plateau see, for example, Christensen, Iranshahr 135–141; Frye, Iran 152–63.

      80. For the fame of Media as a center for horse raising see also Polyb. 5.44.1 and Strabo 11.13.7. Herodotus (7.40) had also noted the fame of the Nisaian horses, as did Arrian (7.13.1). The latter, however, observed that by Alexander’s time the herd had been significantly reduced, the victim of depredation by robbers. See also, for example, Mannert, Geographie 5.2:169–70; Newell, ESM pp. 167–68; Aperghis, Economy 63. Cf. LARISA and APAMEIA on the Axios in northern Syria.

      81. See, for example, ESM 428, 433–56, etc.; and Seleucid Mints 200–217, 409–17, 419–20 etc.

      82. Comment. 2:232; Tarn, GBI² 8–9. Walbank also followed Tarn’s suggestion that these were military settlements rather than full cities.

      83. Aperghis, Economy 42; Shipley, Greek World 281.

      84. L. Robert, Hellenica (1960) 85–91 = SEG 20:325 = I. Estremo Oriente 280 = Euphrat 312 = IGIAC 76.

      85. Samarkhand 82.

      86. For the geographic limits of Parthia—roughly, northeastern Iran and southwestern Turkmenistan—see P. Bernard, Topoi 4 (1994) 481–90 and map on p. 482.

      87. The chronology of the secession of Parthia and Bactria from Seleucid control is much disputed. Essentially there are two schools of thought: a “high” chronology that places the secession in the decade of the 240s, at the end of the reign of Antiochos II Theos; and a “low” chronology that places it in the early 230s, under the reign of Seleukos II Kallinikos. For the “high” chronology see, for example, Tarn, GBI² 80; E. Bickerman, Berytus 8 (1944) 79–83; Holt, Thundering Zeus 55–60; and Capdetrey, Pouvoir 124–30; for the “low” chronology see, for example, J. Wolski, Bulletin internationale de l’Académie polonaises des sciences et lettres Supplement 5 (Cracow, 1947) 13–55; id., Berytus 12 (1956–1957) 35–52; id., Seleucids 43–56; Schmitt, Antiochos 64–66, 70–76; Will, Histoire politique² 1:301–8; Bivar in CHIr 3(1): 28–29; P. Bernard, Topoi 4 (1994) 481–502; Lerner, Seleucid Decline 11–31. In general, see the discussion of Musti in CAH² 7.1:213, 219–20: “Even if it began under Antiochus II . . . the secession of Bactria and Parthyene took place over a period of years, and that was apparently the period stretching from the last years of Antiochus II to the period of the wars between Seleucus II and Antiochus Hierax.” But, irrespective of the preferred chronological sequence, it is clear that effective and continuous Seleucid control of the region did not extend beyond the 230s. Sherwin-White (Samarkhand 84–89) has argued—unconvincingly—that these regions remained under Seleucid control throughout the third century B.C. and did not come under permanent Parthian rule until the early second century B.C.; contra: see especially Bernard, Topoi 4 (1994) 481–90.

      88. On Susa and Susiana during the Hellenistic period see especially Le Rider, Suse 255–96; and Capdetrey, Pouvoir 364–67. See also Frye, Iran 271–75 (Persis and Elymais); and Potts, Elam 354–410 (Elymais).

      89. Potts, Elam 358; id., Mesopotamian Civilization 67–70, 148–50.

      90. Suse 271 and nos. 47, 52, 64, 78–79, etc.

      91. See p. 23.

      92. See, for example, Tarn, Alexander 2:233. See also Appendix II. Narain’s suggestion (Indo-Greeks 2–3) that there were settlements of Greeks that predated the arrival of Alexander has met with mixed reception; see also J. Wolski, Klio 38 (1960) 111; and A. Simonetta, East and West 9 (1958) 154–55. On the other hand, cf. Bernard, Aï Khanoum 4:23: “Il s’agit [i.e., pre-Alexandrine colonies of Greeks in central Asia] là d’une pure théorie qui repose essentiellement sur une utilisation abusive de l’épisode du massacre des Branchides et une lecture trop hâtive des sources anciennes qui y font une allusion”; followed by Coloru, Da Alessandro 123–24. See also Rougemont, IGIAC 206 n. 733. On the Achaemenid punitive deportation of Greeks to Bactria and other distant regions of the Persian Empire see above, pp. 25–26.

      93. On Hellenistic Bactria see, in general, P. Briant in L’archéologie de la Bactriane ancienne (Paris, 1985) 241–51; Leriche in After Alexander 121–53; Capdetrey, Pouvoir 38–44, 76–82, 367–69, et passim; L. Martinez-Sève, Chiron 40 (2010) 1–27; and Coloru, Da Alessandro; see also the various illustrated articles in DA 247 (October 1999) and De l’Indus (exhibition catalogue); and Cambon in Afghanistan une histoire 29–35. For the Persian satrapies in this region and in India see, for example, Herzfeld, Empire 322–38, 346–47; Briant, Empire perse 764–78.

      94. For the Persian policy of transplanting Greeks and others to Bactria see above, pp. 25–26.

      95. Curtius Rufus (9.7.1) claims that the revolt was the result of fear of punishment rather than hostility to Alexander. In this regard we may also recall Herodotus’s account of the Theraian colonization of Libya (4.153–59). There the colonists attempted to return home because of difficult economic conditions.

      96. On the revolt see Koshelenko, Grecheskij Polis 181–221; Bernard, Aï Khanoum 4:127–28; Coloru, Da Alessandro 130–34; and Rougemont, IGIAC 203 n. 706. On the “upper satrapies” see, for example, Diod. 20.47.5; App. Syr. 57; Strabo 15.2.1, as well as Musti in CAH² 7.1:211; Capdetrey, Pouvoir 38–43; Coloru, Da Alessandro 134–38.

      97. See, for example, Droysen, Hist. 2:670–700; Berve, Alexanderreich 1:291–301; Tarn, Alexander 2:232–59; Fraser, Cities; Bosworth, Conquest 245–50; N. G. L. Hammond, GRBS 39 (1998) 243–69; Seibert, Alexander 179–83; Heckel and Yardley, Alexander the Great 303–10.

      98. Fraser, Cities 1–2.