The Hellenistic Settlements in the East from Armenia and Mesopotamia to Bactria and India. Getzel M. Cohen

foundations to the Macedonian king (s.vv. “Alexandreia,” “Boos Kephalai,” and “Boukephaleia”) plus another two or three (s.vv. “Dion” and “Euporia”) that are clearly unhistorical.⁹⁸ The ? recension of the Greek Alexander Romance ascribed thirteen foundations to Alexander but listed only nine. The ?' and Γ recensions of the Greek Romance recorded twelve settlements attributed to the Macedonian king, as did the Chronicon Paschale 321 (CSHB 4.1), the Excerpta Latina Barbari 34b (ed. Schoene [Appendix 6 in Eusebi Chronicorum vol. 1), and Julius Valerius (3.60 [1445–1450], ed. Rosellini). In other versions of the Romance, the number varied only slightly, if at all: for example, the Armenian, Syriac [thirteen?], and Ethiopic mentioned twelve; the Analecta Syriaca referred to thirteen; the Hebrew also recorded thirteen, while the Arabic geographer Yakut recorded fifteen in the Mu’jam al-Buldân (Geographical Dictionary) and sixteen in the Mushtarik (Dictionary of Geographical Homonyms).⁹⁹ Lists of foundations attributed to Alexander are also found in the Perso-Arabic (Iranian) literature: for example, in al-Tabari (839–923 A.D.), al-Dinawari (ninth century A.D.), Hamza al-Isfahani (884-c. 961 A.D.), and Qudama ibn Ja’far (d. 948 A.D.).¹⁰⁰ Al-Tabari says the Macedonian king built twelve cities, all named Alexandreia; he then gives their names.¹⁰¹ Al-Dinawari says Alexander built twelve cities, but names only seven.¹⁰² Hamza records a tradition that Alexander founded twelve cities in Iran—all of them called Alexandreia—but he then mentions only eleven.¹⁰³ Qudama ascribes nine cities to the Macedonian king.¹⁰⁴ The Pahlavi Provincial Capitals of Eranshahr (ed. Markwart) does not include a list but does provide a number of attributions (12, 53).¹⁰⁵ Finally, the Christian Egyptian physician Eutychios (Sa’ îd ibn al-Batrîq, 877–940 A.D.) says that Alexander “built thirteen cities in the East and the West . . . and he built Alexandria in Egypt.” Unfortunately, he does not name the cities—other than ALEXANDREIA near Egypt—that he attributed to Alexander.¹⁰⁶ The foundations included in these various Romance and Romance tradition lists are not uniform, nor can definite identifications be made in every case.¹⁰⁷

      Other ancient authors focused on Alexander’s activity in particular regions. Thus, Strabo (11.11.4) says Alexander founded eight poleis in Bactria and Sogdiana; Justin (12.5.3) says he founded twelve (seven, according to another manuscript) there. Curtius Rufus (7.10.15–16) claimed Alexander chose six sites for foundations in Margiana.¹⁰⁸

      Whatever the exact number, there is general agreement among most scholars that the total number of settlements that can be attributed to Alexander with any degree of certainty is less than Plutarch’s seventy.¹⁰⁹ V. Tcherikover came up with a figure of approximately thirty-four—as he noted, roughly half Plutarch’s number.¹¹⁰ However, he considered many in his list to be questionable or doubtful.

      TCHERIKOVER

      1 Alexandropolis in Thrace

      2 Gaza

      3 Alexandreia near Egypt

      4 Alexandreia on the Caucasus

      5 Alexandreia on the Tanais

      6 Nikaia in India

      7 Boukephala

      8 Arigaion

      9 Alexandreia on the Akesines

      10 Alexandreia on the Indus and Akesines

      11 Alexandreia Sogdiana

      12 Xylenopolis

      13 Barke

      14 Arbis-Alexander’s Harbor

      15 Alexandreia Rhambakia

      16 Alexandreia on the Pallakottas

      17 Alexandreia Charax

      “ZWEIFELHAFTE”

      1 Alexandreia on the Latmos

      2 Samareia

      3 Alexandreia in Assyria

      4 Alexandreia in Parthia

      5 Alexandreia in Aria

      6 Alexandreia in Arachosia

      7 Alexandreia in Sakastane

      8 Prophthasia

      9 Another city in the Caucasus (Kadrusi)

      10 Alexandreia in Bactria

      11 Alexandreia on the Oxus

      12 Alexandreia Soriana

      13 Alexandreia in Carmania

      “NICHT ZU ENDE GEFüHRTE GRüNDUNGEN”

      1 Ilion

      2 Taxila

      3 The capital city of the Musikanoi

      4 Patala

      Tarn claimed that thirteen settlements could be definitely attributed to Alexander.¹¹¹

      TARN

      1 Alexandreia near Egypt

      2 Alexander in Aria

      3 Alexandreia in Arachosia

      4 Alexandreia in Margiana

      5 Alexandreia on the Oxus

      6 Alexandreia Eschate

      7 Alexandreia in Susiana

      8 Alexandreia Prophthasia

      9 Alexandreia-Bactra

      10 Alexandreia of the Caucasus

      11 Alexandreia Boukephala

      12 Alexandreia Iomousa

      13 Alexandreia in Makrene

      P. M. Fraser believed eight settlements could definitely be attributed to Alexander. (At the end of his Cities of Alexander the Great Fraser concluded that he could attribute only six foundations to Alexander. Elsewhere, however, he indicated that he believed two other cities—Alexandreia in Arachosia and Alexandreia in Parapamisadai—could be considered authentic.)¹¹²

      FRASER

      1 Alexandreia near Egypt

      2 Alexandreia in Aria

      3 Alexandreia Eschate

      4 Alexandreia in Susiana

      5 Alexandreia Boukephala

      6 Alexandreia among the Oreitai (Rhambakia)

      7 Alexandreia in Arachosia

      8 Alexandreia in Parapamisadai

      

      In an article evaluating (and reacting to) the works of Tarn and Fraser, N. G. L. Hammond suggested that one should not dismiss Plutarch’s number out of hand and speculated that the total of Alexander’s foundations might, in fact, have been around seventy.¹¹³ Hammond, however, did not provide a list of the settlements that he believed were founded by the king.

      A further problem is the difficulty of identifying the various Alexandreias. In antiquity (and later) some of these Alexandreias were referred to by different identifying tag lines or epithets. It is quite possible that different authors, undoubtedly reflecting different local traditions, might have been referring to the same Alexandreia by different epithets. The resulting confusion presents significant challenges for the scholar. To give one example: it has been suggested that ALEXANDREIA OXEIANA should be identified with ALEXANDREIA NEAR BAKTRA (Fraser), ALEXANDREIA IN SOGDIANA (Tarn), or the settlement at AÏ KHANOUM or Termez (Bernard).¹¹⁴

      Finally, it is sobering to note that we do not definitely know the exact location of any Alexandreia or any other alleged Hellenistic settlement in Bactria. In fact, the only settlement in Bactria that can be definitely located is the one at Aï Khanoum; but in that case we do not know its ancient name!¹¹⁵

      The Seleucids in the East

      The history of the Seleucid empire is the story of the continuing loss over time of lands at a distance—both west and east—from northern Syria. In the east, these territories were all on the periphery of the empire, stretching in a broad