PLATO. Hoshang Khambatta

a beautiful object. Likewise, he pointed out, Bigness and Smallness are Forms and what makes things bigger or smaller are attributes. When one thing is divided in half it becomes two. So what matters are the Forms of Oneness and Twoness. Here, Socrates established the theory of Forms, such as Beautiful, Small, Big, et al. Thus, he concluded, when I say that Simmias is taller than Socrates this statement does not assert the truth or falsity of the matter. It is not in Simmias’ nature to be taller, but it is so because of the attribute Tallness that he happens to have. At the same time, Simmias is shorter than Phaedo. So Simmias is both taller and shorter. Then Socrates gave another such example where they all agreed that there is hot and cold. Then Socrates asked if these attributes were the same as fire and snow. All those assembled disagreed with this comparison. So hot is different from fire and snow is different from cold. Socrates gave the example that if fire and cold approach each other, they both either have to retreat or both will be destroyed. Such an outcome is true of many other opposites as well. Hence, Socrates asserted that only a Form deserves its characteristic name. Some thing else that is not the Form, but has the characteristics of the Form, does not deserve its characteristic name. Another example that Socrates alluded to was odd and even numbers. Odd and Even are Forms. Number 3 is odd. So it can be called by its Form. Hence, 3 has the nature of Odd.

      Socrates then asked if it is the soul that makes the body alive? Everyone agreed that this is always so. Furthermore, the opposite of life is death, but the soul can never consent to the opposite of what its being is. So if soul does not admit death, then it is deathless, which proves that the soul is immortal. Phaedo reports that Socrates concluded that when a man dies, the mortal part of him, that is the body, dies. While the soul, which is deathless, goes away safe and indestructible, and will dwell in the underworld. People who have lead a good life will have their souls live forever in the underworld. However, a person who has lived a less than a virtuous life will be punished according to the degree of his misdeeds and he will be reborn in a lower life form.

      At this point they all agreed that there was nothing more to discuss. Socrates took his final bath before swallowing the poison. At that moment, Crito asked if he had any final instructions. Socrates replied: “Nothing new, but take good care of yourself in whatever you do”. He then swallowed the hemlock poison and lay down in his bed. Just before the end he uncovered his head and told Crito that he owed a cock to Asclepius, The God of Healing, and asked him not to forget to make the offering.

      Such was the end of their friend whom they all know as the best and the wisest of men. Phaedo relates, the legend that has it that sick people who slept in the temple of Asclepius hoping for a cure sacrificed a cock to him to help in their recovery. By this final request, Phaedo interprets, Socrates made the point that death was a cure for the ills of his life.

5 Cratylus

       Overview: This dialogue is about the study of language and the giving of names to things. The discussants are trying to determine what the source of the name’s correctness is, when an item is named. This was a very popular field of inquiry during Plato’s time, though it is not much discussed in present-day Western philosophical circles. The dialogue here is between Hermogenes and Cratylus, but Socrates does much of the talking. Plato has Socrates considering etymological examinations of a long list of names of Gods, humans, and things in order to discover the ultimate truth about things through their names. This dialogue demonstrates that Socrates was an expert in this crowded field of study.

      Hermogenes is the conventional linguist. He believes that any local or national convention determines the name of a thing. He feels that the same thing can be called by a different name if people can agree. Cratylus is a naturalistic linguist. He believes that names cannot be chosen arbitrarily. The name must belong to a thing and must have specificity.

      Hermogenes and Cratylus are having a discussion about names and ask Socrates to join in. Why is an item or a person called by an assigned name? Cratylus believes that there is an etymological derivative for all given names, whereas Hermogenes believes that a name is anything that a community wishes to call something. Hermogenes first asks Cratylus whether his name is Cratylus, to which Cratylus replies affirmatively. Then Hermogenes asks Socrates whether his name is Socrates, to which Socrates also replies affirmatively. Then Cratylus jokingly says that he himself is called Hermogenes by everyone. When Hermogenes challenges Socrates about Cratylus’ remark, Socrates does not give a straight answer. He explains that there is an ancient proverb stating that fine things are difficult to explain. Socrates tells Hermogenes that Cratylus is only making fun of him. It was a pun on his name. Hermes is the God of profit and Hermogenes means son of Hermes. Socrates points out that Hermogenes was not making much money giving speeches.

      Hermogenes says that he has often discussed names with other people who contend that the correctness of a name is determined by usage.

      Any name someone gives becomes the correct name by usage. If an object or person gets a different name, then that new name becomes the proper name. Hermogenes gives an example of a domestic slave who had a previous name but was then given a new name. The new name becomes his true name. Socrates then asks if he should decide to call a man – a horse and a horse a man – whether that would be acceptable? The three of them discuss how even in Greece, different communities have different names for the same thing. Socrates then quotes Protagoras, a fellow philosopher, who has said that “man is the measure of all things.” and “that things are to me as they appear to me and to you as they appear to you.” Socrates then asks: “Do you believe that things have a fixed being of their own?” Hermogenes replies that he does not always agree with Protagoras, however, sometimes, even when he does not believe in him he accepts Protagoras’ ideas. They all then agree that there are both, men who are good and wise, as well as men who are bad and foolish. If names for each person are as he believes them to be, then it is not possible for one person to be wise and another foolish. Therefore, what Protagoras says cannot be true.

      Socrates and Hermogenes discuss how they should go about properly naming things. Socrates suggests that perhaps Hermogenes should ask his brother Callias what he has learned from Protagoras after paying him such huge fees. Hermogenes declines this suggestion, as he does not believe in what Protagoras has to say. In that case, Socrates suggests, that Hermogenes may want to fall back on what Homer has said on the subject. They discuss multiple examples from Homer that describe names. Homer describes two names given to Hector’s son; men call him Astyanax, and women call him Skamandrios. Men were wiser. When one looks at the roots of the two names, astu and anax, both mean lord of the city. Homer also gave Hector his name. Hector means possessor. This discussion goes to show that Homer was well versed in connectedness in giving names. Socrates gives many more such examples of the correctness of names. He considers that some people’s names are deceptive. Sometimes these names are given to people because their ancestors had them. At other times the names are given in hopes that they will prove to be appropriate for the recipient. As examples he cites Eutychides – son of good fortune, Sosias – savior, and Theophilus – beloved by god. However, these names can be very misleading in describing the so named person.

      Their discussion continues about how The Gods were named. The first inhabitants of Greece believed that the sun, moon, earth, stars, and sky were Gods. As these celestial bodies seemed to be always moving or running, they were called, theoi, from thein, to run.

      Next, the meaning of daemons, heroes, and humans are discussed. Socrates asks as to what is the correct derivation of the word, daemon? He quotes the poet Hesiod who defined them as “they belonged to the Golden Race of men, the first human race.” They were good and beloved by The Gods and the children of The Gods. According to Hesiod when a good man dies he goes on to a great destiny and with great honors and becomes a daemon, a title then given to him. Hermogenes asks the meaning of the title, hero? Socrates replies that that is easy to explain. Heroes are born out of love, eroes and are thus demigods. They are the children of Gods and mortal women or, conversely, from mortal men with Goddesses. He points out that considering the old Attic dialect, makes it clear that hero is only slightly altered from eros. He notes that sophists who make clever speeches are called rhetores and skilled questioners are called eroten. Socrates asks why members of the human race are called human anthroepoi. He says that we often make small