Geology: The Science of the Earth's Crust. William J. Miller

commonly the rocks also contain minute crevices, fissures, and pores. Repeated freezing and thawing of water which finds its way into such openings finally causes even the most resistant rocks to break up into smaller and smaller fragments. A very striking example of difference in climatic effect upon a given rock mass is the obelisk in Central Park, New York. For many centuries this famous monument stood practically without change in the dry, frostless climate of Egypt, but very soon after its removal to the moist, frosty climate of New York, it began to crumble so rapidly that it was necessary to cover it with a coating of glaze to protect it from the atmosphere.

      Temperature change, especially in dry regions, is also an important agency for mechanical breaking up of rocks. On high mountains and on deserts, a daily range of temperature of from 70 degrees to 80 degrees is frequent. Due to heat absorption, rocks in desert regions, during the day, not uncommonly reach temperatures of fully 120 degrees, while during the night, due to heat radiation, their temperature falls greatly. During the heating of the outer portion of the rock, the various minerals each expand differently, thus setting up a series of stresses and strains tending to cause the minerals to pull apart. The outer portions of the rocks which are subjected to unstable and relatively rapid temperature changes, often crack or peel off in slabs or flakes, this process being called exfoliation. Stone Mountain in Georgia, and some of the mountains of the southern Sierra Nevada range in California, are excellent examples of mountains which are being rounded off by exfoliation. The principle is the same as that which causes the “spalling” of stones in buildings during fires.

      Masses of débris consisting of more or less angular rock fragments of all sizes commonly occur at the bases of cliffs and mountains. They represent materials which have weathered off the ledges mainly by frost action and temperature changes.

      Where electrical storms are frequent, lightning often shatters portions of rock ledges. Many such cases have come under the writer’s observation in the Adirondack Mountains of New York. The total effect of lightning as a weathering agency is, however, relatively small.

      Another minor weathering effect is the mechanical action of plants. The principle is well illustrated by the breaking or tilting of sidewalks by the wedging action of the growing roots of trees. In many places the roots of plants growing in cracks in rocks, exert powerful pressure causing the rocks or blocks of rocks to wedge apart.

      Let us now briefly consider some of the chemical processes of weathering. The solvent effect of perfectly pure water upon rocks is very slight and slow. But such water is not found in nature because certain atmospheric gases, especially oxygen and carbonic acid gas, are always present in it, and they notably increase the solvent power of the water. Such water has the power to slowly but completely dissolve the common rock called limestone which consists of carbonate of lime. This material is then carried away by the streams. Rocks, like certain sandstones which contain carbonate of lime cementing material, are caused to crumble due to removal of the cement in solution. Carbonic acid gas in water also has the power to chemically alter various minerals in many common rocks and thus the rocks fall apart and the carbonates which result from the action usually are carried away in solution. One of the most important changes of this kind takes place when the very common mineral feldspar is attacked by water containing carbonic acid gas and the mineral alters to a soluble carbonate, kaolin (or clay) and silica.

      The oxygen, both of the air and that which is contained in water, is a very important chemical agent of decomposition of many rocks. Water at the surface and the upper part of the crust of the earth as well as moisture in the air are also important chemical agents which bring about rock decay. We are all familiar with the rusting of iron which is due to the chemical union of the iron with oxygen, thus forming an iron oxide which in turn commonly unites with water from air or earth. Now, many rocks contain iron, not as such, but held in combination with other substances in the form of various minerals, and this iron of the rocks, where subjected to the oxygen and moisture of air or water, slowly unites with the oxygen and water to form a hydrated iron oxide which is essentially iron-rust. The minerals containing considerable iron are, therefore, decomposed and the rocks crumble. There are various iron oxides, usually more or less hydrated, ranging in color from red through brown to yellow, and these constitute probably the most common and striking colors of the rocks of the earth. The gorgeously colored Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone River is a very fine example of large scale coloring due to development of much hydrated oxide of iron during the weathering of lava rock, the process having been aided by the action of heated underground waters.

      Most of the soils of the earth are the direct result of weathering. Important exceptions are soils which have been transported by the action of water, ice, or wind. Although the process of weathering is very slow and relatively superficial, it is, nevertheless, true that in many places, the products of weathering form faster than they can be carried away. Such weathered materials accumulate in their place of origin to form soils. The upper few hundred feet of the earth’s crust is everywhere more or less fractured and porous and the rocks are there affected in varying degrees by most of the ordinary agents of weathering. In such cases, outside the areas which were recently covered by ice during the great Ice Age, it is common to find the loose soil grading downward into rotten rock, and this in turn into the fresh practically unaltered bedrock. Soils of this kind are generally not more than ten or twenty feet deep, though under exceptional conditions, as in parts of Brazil, they attain depths of several hundred feet.

      In order to make still clearer some of the above principles of weathering and also to give the reader some understanding of the most common types of residual soils, we shall consider what happens to a few rather definite types of ordinary rocks when they are subjected to weathering. A very simple case is that of a sandstone, the mineral grains (mostly quartz) of which are held together by carbonate of lime. The lime simply dissolves and is carried away, while many of the mineral grains may remain to form a soil of nearly pure sand. Where oxide of iron forms the cementing material, the rock yields less readily to weathering, and the sandy soil will be yellowish brown or red according to the climate. Another simple case is that of limestone which when perfectly pure yields no soil because it is all soluble. Pure limestone is, however, rare, and the various mineral impurities in it, being to a considerable degree insoluble, tend to remain to form a residual soil which may vary from sandy to clayey, and usually brown or red due to the setting free of oxides of iron. According to one estimate a thickness of about 100 feet of a certain fairly impure limestone formation in Virginia must weather to yield a layer of soil one foot thick. Soils of this kind, which are usually rich, are common in many limestone valleys of the Appalachian Mountains. In the case of shale rock, which is hardened mud, the cementing materials are removed, some chemical changes in the minerals may take place, and the rock crumbles to a claylike soil. What happens to a very hard, resistant igneous rock like granite when attacked by the weather? Such a rock always consists mainly of the two very common minerals feldspar and quartz, usually with smaller amounts of other minerals such as mica, hornblende, augite, or magnetite. The feldspar, which when fresh is harder than steel, slowly yields when attacked by water containing carbonic acid gas and crumbles or decays to a mixture of kaolin (clay), carbonate of potash, and silica (quartz). Clay is an important constituent of most good soils, while the carbonate of potash is essential as a food for most plants. Due to yielding of the grains or crystals of feldspar, the granite falls apart (see Plate 1). The grains of quartz remain chemically unchanged, though they may be more or less broken by changes of temperature, and the other minerals, which are mostly iron-bearing, yield more or less to weathering, resulting in a variety of products, among which are oxides of iron. A typical granite, therefore, gives rise to a good heavy soil which is yellow, brown or red according to climate. Such granite soils are common in many parts of the Piedmont Plateau from Maryland to Georgia. Most of the dark-colored igneous rocks, like ordinary basaltic lava, contain much feldspar, various iron-bearing minerals, and little or no quartz. Such rocks yield to the weather like granite but, because of lack of quartz, the soils are more clayey. Rich soils of this kind occur in the great lava fields of the northwestern United States and in the Hawaiian Islands.

      The importance of the breaking down of feldspar under the influence of the weather, as above described, not only from the standpoint of soil development, but also as regards the wearing down of the lands of the earth, is difficult to overemphasize