Earth Materials. John O'Brien

sediment versus phi size cla...Figure 13.5 Typical frequency curve for weight percent versus phi size class...Figure 13.6 Typical cumulative frequency curve for cumulative weight percent...Figure 13.7 Cumulative curves showing the median (φ₅₀) and different degrees...Figure 13.8 Diagram for the determination of sorting by visual comparison, u...Figure 13.9 Grain shapes defined from a, b, and c dimensions, where a ≥ b ≥ ...Figure 13.10 Imbricated clasts. (a) Tertiary, Montana, flow from left to rig...Figure 13.11 Diagram for the determination of rounding in grains of varying ...Figure 13.12 (a) Oligomictic gravel with rounded gravel and a clast‐supporte...Figure B13.1 Geological map of South Island, New Zealand, showing the Alpine...Figure 13.13 Sandstone classification of Folk (1974). F = feldspar; L = lith...Figure 13.14 Four‐component classification sandstones. F = feldspar; L = lit...Figure 13.15 (a) QFL (quartz, feldspar, lithic fragments) diagram after Dick...Figure B13.2 Large‐scale cross‐strata, Navajo sandstone, Jurassic, Utah.Figure 13.16 Reduction spots around organic particles in red–purple mudrock....Figure 13.17 Diagram showing the general relationships between color, organi...Figure 13.18 Bentonite, with its typical, lumpy popcorn‐like appearance, Mow...Figure 13.19 Oil shale with a dark color that results from its oil content....Figure 13.20 Organic‐rich sapropel layer (middle) between lighter colored la...Figure 13.21 Idealized compaction and porosity curves for well‐sorted quartz...Figure 13.22 Major varieties of long grain contacts produced by diagenetic p...Figure 13.23 Syntaxial quartz overgrowths (arrows) and blocky calcite cement...Figure 13.24 Solubility of calcite as a function of dissolved CO₂ content an...Figure 13.25 Photomicrograph of calcite cemented sandstone with poikiloptic ...Figure 13.26 Images of concretions. (a) A nucleus and concentric structure i...Figure 13.27 Nodules. (a) Three flint nodules in limestone.(b) Septarian...Figure 13.28 Geodes showing banded chalcedony rims and quartz (plus bladed g...Figure 13.29 Liesegang bands in a sandstone block; note the truncation again...

      14 Chapter 14Figure 14.1 Compositions of low magnesium and high magnesium calcites.Figure 14.2 (a) Shell beach, Hinchinbrook Island, Queensland, Australia: an ...Figure 14.3 (a) Modern ooids, Joulter Cay, Bahamas.(b) Thin section of o...Figure 14.4 (a) Rounded intraclasts, Jurassic, Sundance Formation, Wyoming. ...Figure 14.5 Idealized aggregate limeclasts: (a) grapestone, (b) botryoidal a...Figure 14.6 Peloids of various shapes in grain‐supported framework, with int...Figure 14.7 Carbonate mud in thin section, under plane light: (a) micrite, (...Figure 14.8 Dunham's classification of limestones.Figure 14.9 Modifications of Dunham’s classification.Figure 14.10 Folk's basic classification of carbonate rocks.Figure 14.11 Folk’s textural classification of carbonates.Figure 14.12 Tidal flat depositional environments; Bahamas.Figure 14.13 Idealized sandy beach cross‐section illustrating major depositi...Figure B14.1 (a) Major reef and carbonate buildup organisms through time. Ma...Figure 14.14 Major environments in modern reefs.Figure 14.15 Major depositional environments on a carbonate ramp.Figure 14.16 Major carbonate environments on a rimmed platform.Figure 14.17 Sketch that shows the distribution of the major zones in which ...Figure 14.18 Stylolites with a “toothed” pattern (below the penny) and a thi...Figure 14.19 Moldic porosity, showing a dissolved gastropod shell, later fil...Figure 14.20 Marine, isopachous rim cement (brownish) on grains with pore sp...Figure 14.21 Syntaxial calcite in optical continuity on an echinoderm spine....Figure 14.22 Environments of evaporite formation in modern sabkhas and the c...Figure 14.23 (a) Nodular gypsum, Triassic Mercia Group, Watchet Beach, Engla...Figure B14.2 Distribution of Miocene evaporites in the Mediterranean Basin....Figure 14.24 Sketch models for large barred basin evaporite formation: (a) s...Figure 14.25 Cross‐section and sketch map view of an idealized evaporite bas...Figure 14.26 Conditions under which modern siliceous oozes accumulate below ...Figure 14.27 Bedded “ribbon” chert in outcrops. (a) Radiolarian chert, Creta...Figure 14.28 Chert nodules. (a) Flint nodules in Kalkberg limestone, Devonia...Figure 14.29 (a) Siliceous sinter precipitated around hot springs, Yellowsto...Figure 14.30 Banded iron formation, Vermillion Range, Minnesota.Figure 14.31 Manganese nodule.Figure 14.32 Black phosphate layer, Phosphoria Formation, Permian, Wyoming....Figure 14.33 Major ranks of coal produced during progressive coalification, ...Figure 14.34 Peat and the major ranks of coal derived from it during coalifi...Figure 14.35 Formation of crude oil, wet gas, dry gas and kerogens during pe...Figure 14.36 Major types of petroleum traps: (top) structural traps produced...

      15 Chapter 15Figure 15.1 (a) Diagram showing temperature and pressure ranges of diagenesi...Figure 15.2 An undeformed cube (above) subjected to uniform stress changes v...Figure 15.3 Common metamorphic rocks. (a) Non‐foliated rocks include marble,...Figure 15.4 Kyanite–andalusite–sillimanite stability fields.Figure 15.5 Photomicrograph of a quartz porphyroblast that has experienced e...Figure 15.6 Meteor Crater Arizona.Figure 15.7 Brittle faulting produces cataclasites and high‐strain rate pseu...Figure 15.8 Cross‐section of contact metamorphism as granite intrudes limest...Figure 15.9 Cross‐section depicting chemical reactions at mid ocean ridges....Figure 15.10 Compressive stress produces foliations typically at a high angl...Figure 15.11 Dynamothermal metamorphism at convergent plate boundaries.

      16 Chapter 16Figure 16.1 Force acting on a two‐dimensional plane can be depicted as a vec...Figure 16.2 Three‐dimensional block diagrams illustrating the three main typ...Figure 16.3 (a) Uniform stress in which the three principal stress axes are ...Figure B16.1 Teeter‐totter analogy of: (a) a principal plane oriented perpen...Figure 16.4 Principle stresses directed toward a cube. Note that shear stres...Figure 16.5 (a) Non‐uniform stresses transform a sphere into (b) an ellipsoi...Figure 16.6 Summary diagram of the four types of rock deformation. Figure 16.7 (a) Homogeneous strain in which parallel lines remain parallel, ...Figure 16.8 Photomicrograph of a ~5 mm snowball garnet that has been rotated...Figure 16.9 Illustration depicting X, Y, and Z strain axes. Figure 16.10 The equidimensional cylinder in stage A represents an undeforme...Figure 16.11 Diagram illustrating deformation of: (a) an initially undeforme...Figure B16.2 (a) Illustration of Poisson's ratio in which material “fattenin...Figure 16.12 Elastic behavior is depicted on idealized stress–strain graphs....Figure 16.13 (a) Idealized plastic deformation initiates after a critical st...Figure 16.14 Plastic deformation proceeds through microscopic intracrystalli...Figure 16.15 (a) Quartz pebbles of the Purgatory Conglomerate experienced di...Figure 16.16 Stylolites in a marble slab form by concentration of insoluble ...Figure 16.17 Cobble creep occurs through moderate to high temperature atom a...Figure 16.18 (a) Idealized rock response to stress in which low stress level...Figure 16.19 Brittle–ductile transition within Earth.Figure 16.20 (a) Competence contrast results in both brittle and ductile beh...Figure 16.21 General types of structures produced by brittle and ductile def...Figure 16.22 Block diagrams of (a) two conjugate normal dip‐slip faults, (b)...Figure 16.23 Nonsystematic, random veins in metabasalt, Bou Azzer, Morocco....Figure 16.24 Parallel, regularly spaced systematic veins in competent metaqu...Figure 16.25 En echelon quartz vein array that formed in response to sinistr...Figure 16.26 Systematic, parallel blocky spar quartz and feldspar folded gra...Figure 16.27 Fibrous calcite veins indicating sinistral shear within metavol...Figure 16.28 (a) Major components of folds. (b) Terms used to describe the f...Figure 16.29 Idealized block diagrams illustrating (a) syncline; (b) anticli...Figure 16.30 Development of superposed folds. (a) Initial folding event with...Figure 16.31 Transposed folds in metamorphosed ironstone in which “rootless”...Figure 16.32 Parasitic folds produce Z (clockwise rotation), M (symmetrical ...Figure 16.33 Tectonic mélange displays metabasalt encased within a muddy mat...Figure 16.34 Intense deformation can result in localized melting and the dev...Figure 16.35 Random, linear, and planar fabric elements.Figure 16.36 Note the cleavage and bedding relationships. The axial planar c...Figure 16.37 This figure illustrates: (a) Intersection lineations formed by ...Figure 16.38 Pencil cleavage from slate within the Anti‐Atlas Mountains, Mor...Figure 16.39 Crenulation lineations in phyllite, Newport, Rhode Island.Figure 16.40 Stretching lineations in hornblende in metamorphosed granite, B...Figure 16.41 Slickenlines on exposed portion of the San Andreas Fault, San F...Figure 16.42 Lake Superior ironstones display plunging folds and steeply inc...

      17 Chapter 17Figure 17.1 (a) Photomicrograph of hornfelsic texture with equant crystals s...Figure 17.2 Photomicrograph of granoblastic texture with equant calcite crys...Figure 17.3 The Proterozoic age Baraboo metaquartzite in Wisconsin contains ...Figure 17.4 Alexander Hamilton’s marble grave in Old Trinity Church graveyar...Figure 17.5 Granoblastic skarn containing wollastonite, tremolite, and garne...Figure 17.6 Quartz (monomictic) metabreccia with angular gravel size grains....Figure 17.7 (a) Exposed fault in