Earth Materials. John O'Brien

cleavage (left to right). Top row: one set of...Figure 5.7 Fracture types, clockwise from upper left: conchoidal fracture in...Figure 5.8 Examples of mineral diaphaneity, top‐down. Left column: opaque mi...Figure 5.9 General relationships between light transmission (diaphaneity), l...Figure 5.10 Metallic and related lusters (opaque and nearly opaque minerals)...Figure 5.11 Nonmetallic lusters (nonopaque minerals) left to right; top row:...Figure 5.12 Clockwise from upper left: asterism in the “Star of India” sapph...Figure 5.13 Basic nesosilicate (orthosilicate) structure with isolated tetra...Figure 5.14 Basic unit of sorosilicate structure; pairs of silica tetrahedra...Figure 5.15 Triangular, square, and hexagonal ring structures in cyclosilica...Figure 5.16 Single‐chain inosilicate structure in pyroxene.Figure 5.17 Double‐chain silicate structure in amphiboles.Figure 5.18 Two‐dimensional sheet structure typical of phyllosilicate minera...Figure 5.19 (a) Two‐layer (t‐o or t‐b) structure of serpentine. (b) Three‐la...Figure 5.20 Three‐dimensional framework structures typical of tectosilicates...

      6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 The electrical (E, in red) and magnetic (B, in yellow) components...Figure 6.2 The continuous electromagnetic spectrum showing the wavelengths, ...Figure 6.3 Ordinary light vibrates in all directions perpendicular to the di...Figure 6.4 Incident light is reflected (blue arrow) from a surface between t...Figure 6.5 The dispersion of white light into different parts of the visible...Figure 6.6 A standard petrographic microscope with the major components iden...Figure 6.7 The essential steps in thin‐section preparation. (a) A chip with ...Figure 6.8 Plane polarized light photomicrograph of plutonic igneous rock (g...Figure 6.9 Plane polarized light from the polarizer is split into a fast ray...Figure 6.10 A modified version of the Michel–Levy Color Chart for interferen...Figure 6.11 Photomicrograph of a thin‐section of gabbro viewed in cross‐pola...Figure 6.12 Diagram shows the correspondence between extinction positions an...Figure 6.13 Sanidine crystal (clear, low birefringence) showing simple compo...Figure 6.14 Crossed‐polars photomicrograph of microcline crystal that displa...Figure 6.15 Crossed‐polars photomicrograph of diorite (see Figure 6.8 for pl...Figure 6.16 Crossed‐polars photomicrograph of a volcanic rock. Large plagioc...Figure 6.17 Crossed‐polars photomicrograph of a quartz crystal near the exti...Figure 6.18 Crossed‐polars photomicrograph of perthite. Exsolved plagioclase...Figure 6.19 A cross‐section through a typical ellipsoidal indicatrix showing...Figure 6.20 Isotropic indicatrix shows sample ray paths “a” (parallel to Y‐a...Figure 6.21 (a) Prolate uniaxial indicatrix with a vertical long axis (blue)...Figure 6.22 Uniaxial positive indicatrix and three major types of section. (...Figure 6.23 Uniaxial positive indicatrix. The crystal c‐axis is vertical and...Figure 6.24 Uniaxial negative indicatrix. The crystal c‐axis is vertical and...Figure 6.25 Centered optic axis figures for uniaxial minerals display two is...Figure 6.26 Use of the gypsum plate for optic sign determinations of uniaxia...Figure 6.27 Use of the quartz wedge for optic sign determinations in mineral...Figure 6.28 The orientation of the uniaxial indicatrix (epsilon and omega vi...Figure 6.29 The general relationships between the three axes (X, Y, and Z) o...Figure 6.30 Diagram that depicts two circular sections (with refractive inde...Figure 6.31 Depiction of simplified versions of the positive and negative bi...Figure 6.32 An acute bisectrix figure for a biaxial mineral with a moderate ...Figure 6.33 (a) The appearance of a Bxa interference figure for a biaxial (+...Figure 6.34 (a) The appearance of a Bxa interference figure for a biaxial (+...Figure 6.35 Depicts centered optic axis figures in a position of maximum cur...Figure 6.36 Gypsum plate determination of optic sign, using a biaxial center...Figure 6.37 Bxo figure and the orientation of the optic normal and optic pla...

      7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Common igneous minerals. Ferromagnesian minerals include olivine,...Figure 7.2 Rock classification based upon percentage of dark‐colored mineral...Figure 7.3 (a) Common phaneritic (coarse crystals) and aphanitic (fine cryst...Figure 7.4 Basalt porphyry containing euhedral and subhedral plagioclase cry...Figure 7.5 Granite pegmatite with K‐feldspar, beryl, quartz, and hornblende....Figure 7.6 Coarse‐grained phaneritic granite with early formed, euhedral to ...Figure 7.7 Aphanitic dacite from Mt. St. Helens 2004 dome eruption. Dacite c...Figure 7.8 (a) Porphyritic phaneritic texture with large pink K‐feldspar phe...Figure 7.9 Temperature–pressure relations depicting solid, solid plus liquid...Figure 7.10 Plagioclase phase diagram illustrating crystalline textures that...Figure 7.11 (a) Graph depicts viscosity versus temperature for five differen...Figure 7.12 Grain boundary alteration and crystal coarsening is produced by ...Figure 7.13 Snowflake obsidian displaying cristobalite seed crystals as well...Figure 7.14 Cross‐bedded vesicular pumice bomb ejected by the 1980 eruption ...Figure 7.15 At depth within the magma pluton, gases are dissolved within the...Figure 7.16 Amygdaloidal basalt in which vesicles have been infilled with qu...Figure 7.17 (a) IUGS classification for pyroclastic rocks based on diameter ...Figure 7.18 Angular volcanic blocks from explosive eruptions at Kilauea, Haw...Figure 7.19 Unwelded ashfall deposits from explosive volcanic eruptions.Figure 7.20 Partially welded ash flow tuff deposit.Figure 7.21 Densely welded tuff deposit.Figure 7.22 (a) The eight major elements in Earth's crust by weight percent,...Figure B7.1 Large ion lithophile elements contain an ionic charge/ionic radi...Figure 7.23 QAPF diagram for plutonic igneous rocks with >10% felsic mineral...Figure 7.24 Modal classification of gabbroic rocks based on proportions of t...Figure 7.25 Modal classification of ultramafic plutonic rocks based on the p...Figure 7.26 Simplified rock classification proposed by Glazner et al. (2019)...Figure 7.27 QAPF diagram for volcanic igneous rocks with >10% felsic mineral...Figure 7.28 (a) Alkali oxide versus silica (TAS) classification diagram for ...

      8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Pressure decrease accompanying uplift triggers melting as the upw...Figure 8.2 Note the lower temperature melting curve for wet basalt versus dr...Figure 8.3 Incompatible light rare elements (LREE) are progressively enriche...Figure 8.4 (a) Bowen's reaction minerals consisting of the ferromagnesian mi...Figure 8.5 Marginal accretion due to preferential cooling of the perimeter o...Figure 8.6 Gravitational separation in a magma chamber involves: crystal set...Figure 8.7 Filter pressing in which a magma chamber containing crystals and ...Figure 8.8 Liquid immiscibility occurs with the cooling of chicken soup. At ...Figure 8.9 Mafic gneiss xenolith entrained within a Proterozoic granite west...Figure 8.10 Olivine xenocrysts in vesicular basalt from appropriately named ...Figure 8.11 In analyzing dacite rocks that formed during the 2004–2005 Mt. S...Figure 8.12 (a) Coexisting 1540 Ma mafic (gray) and felsic (tan) magmas prod...Figure 8.13 AFM diagram illustrating the calc‐alkaline trend with progressiv...Figure 8.14 Generalized cross section illustrating relationships between ana...Figure 8.15 This Harker diagram shows that a relatively high titanium conten...Figure 8.16 Spider diagrams of Ricardo basalts collected in the vicinity of ...Figure 8.17 Cross‐sectional view of plutonic structures.Figure 8.18 White plagioclase‐rich anorthosite with dark, vertical pyroxene ...Figure 8.19 Horizontal basaltic sill enveloped by rhyolite ignimbrites provi...Figure 8.20 Cartoon cross section of a horizontal, planar sill, a laccolith ...Figure 8.21 Swarm of parallel, concordant white felsic veins intruding dark ...Figure 8.22 Ship Rock contains radiating mafic dikes emanating from the cent...Figure 8.23 Devil's Tower neck with columnar joints, Wyoming. Devils Tower o...Figure 8.24 Granitic dike cross cutting metamorphic rock at Mt. Rushmore....Figure 8.25 Three‐dimensional diagrams of en echelon, parallel, ring, and co...Figure 8.26 Sheeted dikes at Giant's Causeway, located on the Irish Sea coas...

      9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 “Curtain of Fire” fissure eruption on Mauna Loa produces an elong...Figure 9.2 A central summit crater vent and flank eruption basalt lava flow ...Figure 9.3 Small parasitic volcano cones at the Mauna Kea summit. Subsurface...Figure 9.4 (a) Kīlauea caldera rim, Halema’uma’u crater, and Overlook pit cr...Figure 9.5 Flood basalts occur in both continental and oceanic environments ...Figure 9.6 (a) 12 m high “Pipe Organ” basalt columns, Giants Causeway, North...Figure 9.7 Glassy rinds and stretch marks on billowed pillow basalts that er...Figure 9.8 Black smoker from hydrothermal vent fields along the Kermadec Arc...Figure 9.9 Shield volcano map of the Big Island of Hawaii.Figure 9.10 On 6 June 2018, an explosion within Halema’uma’u crater blasted ...Figure 9.11 A 8 June 2018 eruption produced 70 m high lava fountains spoutin...Figure 9.12 Approximately 5 m tall spatter cone constructed by a lava founta...Figure 9.13 Approximately 5 m high, 100 m long spatter rampart in Kīlauea fr...Figure 9.14 Pele's tears collected downwind from Kīlauea Volcano, Hawaii. No...Figure 9.15 Pele's blonde hair created by windblown streamlining of silica g...Figure 9.16 Thurston Lave Tube in Hawaii formed during fissure eruptions in ...Figure 9.17 Skylights into lava tube system in Hawaii