Physiology: The Science of the Body. Ernest G. Martin

      The other two kinds of muscle, heart muscle and smooth muscle, must have a word of description. Heart muscle contracts quickly and powerfully, as does skeletal. It differs from skeletal in not depending on nervous stimulation to make it contract; the heart can be cut clean out of the body and will go on beating for a short time; in cold-blooded animals, like frogs or turtles, for a long time. This could not be true if the heart muscle had to be aroused to activity by nerves. Besides being automatic, heart muscle shows the peculiarity that whenever it contracts all the fibers join. We do not have a varying strength of pull shown by heart muscle as we do in skeletal. As we shall see, it would be a serious disadvantage rather than an advantage if heart muscle were to be like skeletal in this respect.

      Smooth muscle has the duty of operating the internal organs. For this function no great strength is required; the motions do not have to be powerful. Nor is rapid motion important. Smooth muscle does not have to be so highly developed, then, as is skeletal. It is sluggish and rather feeble in its actions. There are, however, two points of superiority about smooth muscle, which fit in well with its special task. The first of these is its freedom from fatigue. There are in the body numerous smooth muscle masses that are in contraction practically all the time. This would be impossible if fatigue were to develop. These masses make up what are called the sphincters, rings of muscle surrounding openings like that from the esophagus to the stomach or from the stomach to the small intestine. It is the duty of these sphincters to hold the openings closed all the time except occasionally when they open for just an instant to let material through. The second point about smooth muscle which fits it for its work is that it is capable of stretching out greatly or contracting sharply without much difference in the force with which it is pulling. For example, at the beginning of a meal the walls of the stomach are drawn up, so that the food that is swallowed enters a small space. With the progress of the meal the stomach enlarges, so that at the end it has a much greater bulk than at the beginning. But the actual pressure of the stomach upon its contents is about the same as at the beginning. If the stomach were an ordinary elastic bag this could not happen; the walls would have to stretch as the stomach filled, and the stretching would mean greater pressure. Since the stomach walls are of smooth muscle they adjust themselves to the progress of the meal. It is important to note that there is a limit to this possibility of adjustment. If one is so greedy as to keep on stuffing after the stomach has reached its full size, stretching does occur, and if this is repeated it may lead to a diseased condition known as “dilated stomach,” which will cause much digestive trouble.

CHAPTER VIII

       SENSATION—INTERNAL AND CONTACT SENSES

       Table of Contents

      WE have talked a good deal about muscles and the different sorts of activities they can perform. We have also mentioned the fact that the skeletal muscles are under accurate nervous control. Our next task is to investigate the control of this nervous control; in other words to find out just what it is that causes the nerves to stimulate the muscles so that they shall perform as skillfully and usefully as they do. In Chapter II we saw that our bodily movements are adjusted to our needs through the sense organs. These bring information of the situation and we act accordingly. We may group the kinds of information which the sense organs furnish under three heads; first, what is going on inside our bodies; second, what is happening at the surface of the body, and third, what is happening at a distance from us. The senses which bring the first kind of information are called the internal senses; the second group are the contact senses; and the third are the distance senses. We need to remember that the primary purpose of the senses is to guide our muscles, and that our muscles are to find food for us, to keep us from bodily harm, and to assist in the perpetuation of life by propagating and caring for the young. By keeping these facts in mind we shall have no difficulty in understanding the way in which the various senses do their work.

      Pain, hunger, and thirst are the internal senses with which we are most familiar. Pain is evidently a protective sense. It is never aroused unless something is amiss; for that reason pain should never be neglected. Of course, in the majority of cases the pain is due to some simple disturbance which can be located, and if no permanent harm is to follow, or if no relief is possible, the heroic bearing of the pain is meritorious; but thousands of women, thinking mistakenly that to complain of suffering is a sign of weakness, or hoping to spare loved ones distress, bear in secret or make light of pains that are the signs of insidious disease, curable if taken in hand early enough, but sure to cause acutest suffering and untimely death if allowed to go on unchecked. Unfortunately our most dangerous internal enemies, the organisms of infectious disease, do not give warning of their attack by causing pain until the disease itself is so far advanced that there is no escaping it. In this respect pain falls short of being efficient as a means of warning us against impending injury.

      Hunger and thirst are the stimuli which drive us to the taking of food and water. It is interesting to think that of all the living things that roam the earth only men have discovered the connection between the taking of food and the avoidance of starvation; all other animals are impelled to nourish themselves wholly through the operation of these senses. There are two distinct phases to hunger. The first is appetite, and this by itself seems not to be a sense in the strict meaning of the word, but rather a memory of agreeable experiences associated with the taking of food. In man appetite is often sufficient by itself to lead to eating, as is proved by the frequency with which food is eaten between meals when there cannot possibly be any genuine hunger, but probably in animals it acts to arouse genuine hunger, rather than to cause eating by itself. Genuine hunger is a sense as definite as any other. It is aroused by spasmodic contractions of the stomach. These contractions cannot occur except when the wall of the stomach is in a certain state of tension. Various things can influence the coming on of this degree of tension in the stomach, and so the possibility of hunger. Appetite itself probably does this very effectively. Habit seems also to have something to do with it. Hunger is usually felt just as mealtime draws near, and it is often much keener at noon or night than before breakfast, although the stomach has been longer empty at breakfast than at any other meal. A curious fact about hunger is that it may disappear completely after a few days of complete starvation. Contrary to the popular idea that hunger becomes more and more acute as starvation continues, the testimony of practically all persons who have starved for more than a few days is that all sensations of hunger, as well as all strong longings for food, subside and do not return. This is especially true if the body is kept quiet and if the mind is diverted, so that recollection of meals particularly enjoyed shall not come up.

      Thirst is due to actual drying of the throat. When the cells lining that region become deficient in moisture the sense is aroused. The drying may occur from without or from within. When it occurs from without, as in sleeping with the mouth open, relief can usually be obtained by merely swallowing saliva copiously. The same treatment helps for the moment when the lack of moisture is due to deficiency in the amount in the body, but in this latter case no permanent relief can be had except by the taking of water. When the amount in the body falls below the proper level no comfort can be had until the loss has been made good. An interesting thing about thirst is that it is the only sense which is said never to be lost or seriously impaired by disease.

      In addition to these familiar internal senses we have some that are less well known. They are for the purpose of what may be described as the routine guidance of the muscles. The act of walking, as we well know, is made up of a series of muscular movements which are both accurately timed and accurately graded. We obtain startling realization of this when we come to the bottom step on our way down stairs without noticing that we have arrived there. This timing and grading are done for us by our bodies without our having to attend to it. The amount of labor that is saved is shown by walking upon railroad ties. These are irregularly spaced, and on that account it is necessary for us to pay attention to every step. There is no comparison between the fatigue of this kind of walking and ordinary progress along a smooth path. The senses that keep track of the position of the body and of individual muscles are known respectively as the equilibrium sense and the muscle-and-joint sense. The equilibrium sense has as its organ a part of the internal ear. Deeply imbedded in the bone is