Physiology: The Science of the Body. Ernest G. Martin

is motion, both because it is the familiar sign of life, as pointed out in the first chapter, and because it has so much to do with everything that enters into life. There are probably no animals that live out their entire lives without making any active motions, although some parasites, like the tapeworm, are stationary most of the time. There are a number of different ways in which movements are brought about. The very simplest animals, which consist of nothing but a bit of protoplasm, move by causing the protoplasm to flow bodily in one direction or another, a projection of part of the protoplasm being balanced by withdrawal of an equal part on the opposite side, and the whole mass progresses in the direction of the first projection. Next beyond this simplest means comes motion by tiny threads of protoplasm which project beyond the surface of the cell and whip back and forth. The stroke of these threads or cilia, as they are called, is stronger in one direction than in the other, so the effect of their beating is to propel the cell of which they are part in one direction through the water; or if they are on a surface which is stationary they set up a current in the water itself. This latter is the means by which oysters and similar animals which are anchored to the rocks get their food supplies. In some one-celled animals there are only one or two large cilia at one end; these beat back and forth, propelling the animal much as a fish swims.

      The commonest, as well as the most effective, means of making motions is by cells specially developed for that purpose. These are called muscle cells, and every highly organized animal depends on them for most if not all of the motions which take place in its body. In muscle cells the functional metabolism takes the form of forcible changes in shape of the cells by which bodily motions are brought about. A muscle cell might be described as a mechanical device for transforming the chemical energy of burning fuel into the energy of motion. We have something comparable in the automobile cylinder, where the energy obtained from the explosive burning of the air-gas mixture drives the piston and so propels the car. Of course the two devices are not even remotely alike in the actual way in which they operate; their resemblance is purely the general one of converting one type of energy (chemical) into another type (motion).

      There are three kinds of muscle cells in our bodies. The simplest are those that are found in the wall of the stomach and intestines and other internal organs that are capable of movements; the next kind is found only in the heart; the third, and most complex, makes up the bulk of our muscular tissue; it is the muscle that moves the bones. The first kind, because it shows no particular markings when examined through the microscope, is usually called smooth muscle; the second kind is known as heart muscle; the third kind, because it moves the skeleton, is named skeletal muscle. We shall devote most of our attention to this third kind of muscle, because it is a much more efficient machine than the others, and also because it has to do with our general bodily movements instead of with motions of internal organs.

      A single skeletal muscle cell is an exceedingly slender fiber, much smaller than the finest thread; it may also be very short, not more than a twenty-fifth of an inch long, or it may be as much as an inch long. A muscle is made up of many of these fibers grouped side by side in bundles, and also, if the muscle is long, placed end to end. The fibers are held in place and fastened together by connective tissue. Lean meat consists of thousands of these muscle cells with their connective tissue fastenings. In coarse meat there is relatively more connective tissue and less actual muscle tissue than in the finer grades. In every muscle the connective tissue is loose enough to allow body fluid to penetrate among the muscle cells. Blood vessels are also distributed through the mass of the muscles between and among the cells; thus their nutrition is provided for.

      Although not all muscle cells are exactly equal in power, on the whole the force that muscle can show is the force of one cell multiplied by the number of cells that can join in the pull. A strong muscle must have many cells side by side; in other words it must be thick. Also, the distance through which muscles can make movements depends on their length, so a muscle that has to pull for a considerable way must be long, and since single muscle cells are short there will have to be a good many cells end to end to make the whole muscle long enough for its task. The actual make-up and arrangement of muscles in the body depends in part, therefore, on the thickness and length needed for the particular work to be done, and in part on the architecture of the part of the body where the muscle is located. For example, the strongest muscle in the body is that by which one rises on the toes. This muscle operates by pulling upward at the back of the heel. If it were located right at the ankle, where it would have to be if attached directly to the place where its force is exerted, the resulting clumsiness can easily be imagined. By shifting it up to the middle of the lower leg room is found for the large mass of muscle needed for the work. The connection with the heel is made by means of a long and very strong tendon, known as the tendon of Achilles, because that was the part Achilles’ mother failed to immerse when she was dipping the infant in the river Styx to make him invulnerable. Other equally good examples are the muscles for operating the fingers. If placed in the hands, the latter would be too bulky and clumsy for any kind of efficient use. By placing them up in the forearms out of the way, and connecting them with the fingers by long tendons, delicacy is secured for the hands.

      The muscles of the arms and legs are arranged in groups about the joints, and these groups always include opposing sets. Thus if the joint is a simple hinge, as at the elbow, where the only motion possible is back and forth, there will be one muscle to bend the joint and another opposing muscle to straighten it out again. The first is known as a flexor; the second as an extensor. In the arm the biceps, on the upper surface, is the flexor and the triceps, on the under side, the extensor. Joints that permit of motion in several directions have correspondingly more opposing sets of muscles acting upon them. The same scheme applies to the trunk, but since in the trunk instead of a few very movable joints we have the whole row of slightly movable vertebræ, the grouping of muscles is more complicated. Not all the skeletal muscles work about joints. The tongue, the muscles of the lips and about the eyes, those along the front of the abdomen, and some others are attached to bones only at one end or not at all, and do their work by pulling upon one another.

      

THE BICEPS MUSCLE AND THE ARM BONES (From Martin’s “Human Body”)

      In earlier paragraphs we have seen that the movements made by muscles represent their functional metabolism, and also that the actions of whole muscles are merely the sum of the actions of the individual cells. Our present task is to see how muscles act; in other words to examine their functional metabolism. One feature that must be in mind from the very beginning is that the functional metabolism of muscle cells is under control; they do not go off at random, but only when started. This is more or less true of the functional metabolism of all the cells in highly organized animals. The agency that starts them off is named a stimulus. To picture how stimuli act we shall have to think for a moment of the state of affairs in cells at rest. As we have tried to make clear, cells at rest are not stagnating; a more or less active basic metabolism goes on within them all the time. This metabolism is of such a sort that it does not disturb the balance existing within the cell. The various chemical processes go on, using up material and producing wastes, but without arousing the additional chemical processes of functional metabolism. Meanwhile the substances that are required for this latter are present in the cell, so that when the disturbance that we call a stimulus comes along there is an increase in the total amount of metabolism, the extra chemical processes being those which perform the special function of the cell. In the case of muscle cells the stimulus ordinarily reaches them by way of the nervous system, although electric shocks, sharp blows, some irritating chemicals, and perhaps one or two other kinds of disturbance can act as stimuli. The effect of the stimulus is to start certain chemical processes; these in turn bring about the forcible shortening which is the thing that happens in active muscle. In skeletal muscle the shortening may be very rapid; the muscle can contract and relax again more quickly than the eye can follow. This is true at the temperature of our bodies. In cold-blooded animals, like fish or frogs, muscles become sluggish when they are cold. We see here one of the advantages we enjoy in having bodies that stay at the same temperature the year around; if our bodies cooled off in cold weather as do those of frogs, we should