Introducing Anthropology. Laura Pountney

at new phenomena or bring fresh perspectives on established research, and we were honoured to have worked with them.

      The third and the fourth books in the series are long-form, in-depth ethnographic works based on my traditional and digital anthropological research. One looks at the prehistory of Influencers before this vocabulary came into being, focused on a few networks in Southeast Asia and how young women were setting up and organizing blogshops (online shops hosted on blogs) to sell used, newly imported and eventually exclusively manufactured clothing online. I started this research in the early years of my undergraduate research education and continued it into my PhD candidature. The other book focuses more specifically on influencer cultures in Singapore, looking at the front-to-back end of the industry, the microcosms and macro industry organizations, across several years of fieldwork from my Honours Year and PhD to the present day. At the heart of both books is a focus on everyday cultures and practices.

      WHAT ARE THE ETHICAL ISSUES REGARDING DIGITAL ETHNOGRAPHY?

I will probably address this question as ethnography more generally and extrapolate to the digital context. In anthropology we are trained to be attuned to, or sensitive towards, our informants, and this might mean that we pay closer attention to the ethics, nature and practice of consent and data collection. For instance, online data that is publicly accessible by default, say social media posts, is not necessarily ‘free’ for researchers to lift and study. We have to think about the conditions and environment of the content and poster, whether or not they are intended to be public, whether or not they can be traceable, whether or not we need to implement specific forms of anonymization. For example, if I was conducting a content analysis of publicly circulating YouTube videos and Instagram posts belonging to internet celebrities or prolific account holders, I would probably be able to make the case that these are posters who have intended for their message to circulate and reach the widest audience possible, and in attributing and acknowledging them as authors I will consider whether or not they can and should benefit from being publicly named rather than assume pseudonymity as the default – I almost always allow my informants the opportunity to decide how they would like to be attributed, which has in the past required some persuasion on my part to various institutional ethics committees. But if in another instance I was looking at a subculture that, while still publicly accessible, is not yet mainstream, I consider whether they wish to continue sitting under the radar or whether they would benefit from more general exposure. This requires consultations with key gatekeepers and opinion leaders even at the research proposal and pre-fieldwork stage of a project initiation, and will require more lead time to prepare before I can kick off fieldwork more formally. Amplification and visibility labour, whether by human action or platforms and algorithms, is something I have been focused on in my recent research.

      Further, in traditional ethnographic fieldwork, researchers often have the privilege and time to build rapport and even genuine friendships with informants over time. This will mean that, at times, there will be sensitive or contentious information and situations that I am privy to, under conditions where we may be ‘off duty’ or ‘off stage’ as a friend. Good, ethical ethnographers will take the time to consider these ambiguous boundaries and not partake in research or produce outputs that may do their informants harm. In the past I have chosen to forgo some very rich and exciting data in order not to jeopardize the trust and friendship I share with some informants, which are simultaneously research, political and humane decisions that require quiet consideration. In digital spaces where rapport is built through online relationships, networks and reputation, presence and footprints, or content and contributions, these decisions take a little more effort and care, especially as it can feel more convenient or easy to dismiss or displease someone when interactions are mediated through a screen.

      This ethics of care is something I am still learning to hone. One of the most memorable of such experiences from my fieldwork was when I was made aware that a few of my heterosexual-appearing influencer informants had ‘Instagram boyfriends’ or ‘Instagram girlfriends’ that wore ‘beards’ or ‘covers’ to protect their sexuality, for various reasons. When I was introduced to their (prospective) partners in confidence, I had to remember to respect their wishes whenever we were in group or public settings. For instance, where in groups mutual friends would tease these women influencers about prospective boyfriends, I would join in the banter and jokingly recommend other male candidates as well, despite fully knowing their sexual orientation, in order to maintain the group dynamic and keep the conversation tension-free.

      In another memorable instance, I was out late at night with a few in-the-closet queer informants who were slightly tipsy and more expressive with their body language with (prospective) romantic partners. I noticed that a group of young people – probably their followers – recognized them, and began to secretly snap photographs of them embracing or holding hands. At this moment, I instinctively decided to ‘interrupt’ by introducing myself into the embrace, as if were just ‘tipsy young women’ merely engaging in a group hug or handholding to express ‘girl friendship’, so that we could avoid a situation where my informants accidentally out themselves. This required quick decisions to transit from an ethnographer to an advocate, ally and friend.

Similar incidents in this vein also broke out as ‘small scandals’ online when my informants were caught up in controversies or attacked by haters, anti-fans or rival Influencers. Instead of only observing these events as they unfold, I was sometimes also asked for my expert opinion and friendship to assist my informants in crafting ‘crisis response’ messages. These were moments when, as an ethnographer, I had to decide and prioritize between wanting to ‘collect’ rich data, and desiring to be a good friend and person. Throughout the years of fieldwork, some informants and I ‘debrief’ and reflect on these incidents, which, while seemingly small and mundane, were perhaps some of the most meaningful parts of my research experience, even if the full accounts will never make it to print.

       STOP & THINK

      What are the challenges that anthropologists face when studying people online and offline?

Conclusion

      Anthropology is defined by its research method: ethnographic fieldwork. This method allows the researcher to gain valuable information without disturbing and intruding on the privacy of the people being studied. The researcher participates in all daily activities of the community, observes the group or individuals, records their findings and then reflects on those findings. The body of data collected is often substantial and is used selectively in analysis and in writing up the results. Fieldwork data is usually supplemented by other data collected in libraries and museums. Nowadays fieldwork is used in many other disciplines outside anthropology and is recognized as a valuable way of gathering rich and valid data. In the world of technology, anthropology is adapting to new forms of media and plays an important part in studying cultures online and virtual worlds as well as using new technologies in processing gathered data.

End-of-chapter questions

       Outline the history of research methods by earlier explorers, missionaries and colonists in the nineteenth century and demonstrate how the approach to qualitative research subsequently developed.

       Highlight the key elements of participant observation and discuss the skills required by a participant observer.

       Explain the differences between overt and covert participant observation and discuss and defend the approach you think is most appropriate in anthropological research.

       Identify key elements that distinguish qualitative from quantitative research, and, in the process, suggest which of the above approaches would work best in ethnographic research, and why.

       Digital ethnography is the same as traditional anthropological research. Discuss.

Key terms

      assimilation The absorption of an individual or minority group of people into another society or group, achieved by learning and adopting the cultural