through the body of the limestone in the shape of crystals, scales, or irregular masses. The amount of graphite in some parts of the Lower Laurentian is so great that it has been calculated as equal to the quantity of carbon present in an equal thickness of the Coal-measures. The general source of solid carbon in the crust of the earth is, however, plant-life; and it seems impossible to account for the Laurentian graphite, except upon the supposition that it is metamorphosed vegetable matter. (5) Lastly, the great beds of iron-ore (peroxide and magnetic oxide) which occur in the Laurentian series interstratified with the other rocks, point with great probability to the action of vegetable life; since similar deposits in later formations can commonly be shown to have been formed by the deoxidising power of vegetable matter in a state of decay.
In the words of Principal Dawson, "anyone of these reasons might, in itself, be held insufficient to prove so great and, at first sight, unlikely a conclusion as that of the existence of abundant animal and vegetable life in the Laurentian; but the concurrence of the whole in a series of deposits unquestionably marine, forms a chain of evidence so powerful that it might command belief even if no fragment of any organic or living form or structure had ever been recognised in these ancient rocks." Of late years, however, there have been discovered in the Laurentian Rocks certain bodies which are believed to be truly the remains of animals, and of which by far the most important is the structure known under the now celebrated name of Eozoön. If truly organic, a very special and exceptional interest attaches itself to Eozoön, as being the most ancient fossil animal of which we have any knowledge; but there are some who regard it really a peculiar form of mineral structure, and a severe, protracted, and still unfinished controversy has been carried on as to its nature. Into this controversy it is wholly unnecessary to enter here; and it will be sufficient to briefly explain the structure of Eozoön, as elucidated by the elaborate and masterly investigations of Carpenter and Dawson, from the standpoint that it is a genuine organism—the balance of evidence up to this moment inclining decisively to this view.
The structure known as Eozoön is found in various localities in the Lower Laurentian limestones of Canada, in the form of isolated masses or spreading layers, which are composed of thin alternating laminæ, arranged more or less concentrically (fig. 22). The laminæ of these masses are usually of different colours Fig. 22.—Fragment of Eozoön, of the natural size, showing alternate laminæ of loganite and dolomite. (After Dawson.) and composition; one series being white, and composed of carbonate of lime—whilst the laminæ of the second series alternate with the preceding, are green in colour, and are found by chemical analysis to consist of some silicate, generally serpentine or the closely-related "loganite." In some instances, however, all the laminæ are calcareous, the concentric arrangement still remaining visible in consequence of the fact that the laminæ are composed alternately of lighter and darker coloured limestone.
When first discovered, the masses of Eozoön were supposed to be of a mineral nature; but their striking general resemblance to the undoubted fossils which will be subsequently spoken of under the name of Stromatopora was recognised by Sir William Logan, and specimens were submitted for minute examination, first to Principal Dawson, and subsequently to Dr. W. B. Carpenter. After a careful microscopic examination, these two distinguished observers came to the conclusion that Eozoön was truly organic, and in this opinion they were afterwards corroborated by other high authorities (Mr. W. K. Parker, Professor Rupert Jones, Mr. H. B. Brady, Professor Gümbel, &c.) Stated briefly, the structure of Eozoön, as exhibited by the microscope, is as follows:—
The concentrically-laminated mass of Eozoön is composed of numerous calcareous layers, representing the original skeleton of the organism (fig. 23, b). These calcareous layers Fig. 23.—Diagram of a portion of Eozoön cut vertically. A, B, C, Three tiers of chambers communicating with one another by slightly constricted apertures: a a, The true shell-wall, perforated by numerous delicate tubes; b b. The main calcareous skeleton ("intermediate skeleton"); c, Passage of communication ("stolon-passage") from one tier of chambers to another; d, Ramifying tubes in the calcareous skeleton. (After Carpenter.) serve to separate and define a series of chambers arranged in successive tiers, one above the other (fig. 23, A, B, C); and they are perforated not only by passages (fig. 23, c), which serve to place successive tiers of chambers in communication, but also by a system of delicate branching canals (fig. 23, d). Moreover, the central and principal portion of each calcareous layer, with the ramified canal-system just spoken of, is bounded both above and below by a thin lamina which has a structure of its own, and which may be regarded as the proper shell-wall (fig. 23, a a). This proper wall forms the actual lining of the chambers, as well as the outer surface of the whole mass; and it is perforated with numerous fine vertical tubes (fig. 24, a a), opening into the chambers and on to the surface by corresponding fine pores. From the resemblance of this tubulated layer to similar structures in the shell of the Nummulite, it is often spoken of as the "Nummuline layer." The chambers are sometimes piled up one above the other in an irregular manner; but they are more commonly arranged in regular tiers, the separate chambers being marked off from one another by projections of the wall in the form of partitions, which are so far imperfect as to allow of a free communication between contiguous chambers. In the original condition of the organism, all these chambers, of course, must have been filled with living-matter; but they are found in the present state of the fossil to be generally filled with some silicate, such as serpentine, which not only fills the actual chambers, but has also penetrated the minute tubes of the proper wall and the branching canals of the intermediate skeleton. In some cases the chambers are simply filled with crystalline carbonate of lime. When the originally porous fossil has been permeated by a silicate, Fig. 24.—The animal of Nonionina, one of the Foraminifera, after the shell has been removed by a weak acid; b, Gromia, a single-chambered Foraminifer (after Schultze), showing the shell surrounded by a network of filaments derived from the body substance. it is possible to dissolve away the whole of the calcareous skeleton by means of acids, leaving an accurate and beautiful cast of the chambers and the tubes connected with them in the insoluble silicate.
The above are the actual appearances presented by Eozoön when examined microscopically, and it remains to see how far they enable us to decide upon its true position in the animal kingdom. Those who wish to study this interesting subject in detail must consult the admirable memoirs by Dr. W. B. Carpenter and Principal Dawson: it will be enough here to indicate the results which have been arrived at. The only animals at the present day which possess a continuous calcareous skeleton, perforated by pores and penetrated by canals, are certain organisms belonging to the group of the Foraminifera. We have had occasion before to speak of these animals, and as they are not conspicuous or commonly-known forms of life, it may be well to say a few words as to the structure of the living representatives of the group. The Foraminifera are all inhabitants of the sea, and are mostly of small or even microscopic dimensions. Their bodies are composed of an apparently structureless animal substance of an albuminous nature ("sarcode"), of a gelatinous consistence, transparent, and exhibiting numerous minute granules or rounded particles. The body-substance cannot be said in itself to possess any definite form, except in so far as it may be bounded by a shell; but it has the power, wherever it may be exposed, of emitting long thread-like filaments ("pseudopodia"), which interlace with one another to form a network (fig. 25, b). These Fig. 25.—The animal of Nonionina, one of the Foraminifera, after the shell has been removed by a weak acid; b, Gromia, a single-chambered Foraminifer (after Schultze), showing the shell surrounded by a network of filaments derived from the body substance. filaments can be thrown out at will, and to considerable distances, and can be again retracted into the soft mass of the general body-substance, and they are the agents by which the animal obtains its food. The soft bodies of the Foraminifera are protected by a shell, which is usually calcareous, but may be composed of sand-grains cemented together; and it may consist of a single chamber (fig. 26, a),
