Lifespan Development. Tara L. Kuther

activities and things rather than considerations of people’s thoughts.

      Other research with Samoan and Vanuatu children of the South Pacific has confirmed the relevance of culture on theory of mind. Samoan children ages 3 to 14 years showed delayed development in theory of mind and a prolonged transition to succeeding on theory of mind tasks relative to Western samples (Dixson, Komugabe-Dixson, Dixson, & Low, 2018; Mayer & Träuble, 2015). Samoan and Vanuatu children’s slow progression on theory of mind tasks is consistent with the Pacific Island doctrine of opacity of mind (Slaughter & Perez-Zapata, 2014). Samoan and Vanuatu cultures deemphasize internal mental states as explanations for behavior. Samoan and Vanuatu children, therefore, are not exposed to discussions about the mind. They get little experience considering other people’s thoughts. Research with English-speaking Western samples has shown that conversations about people’s thoughts predict children’s understanding of false beliefs (Slaughter, Peterson, & Mackintosh, 2007). Therefore, Samoan and Vanuatu children’s delayed success on false-belief tasks is likely a result of their culture’s views. In support of this idea is a study of Pacific families living in New Zealand, in which mothers with a stronger Pacific cultural identity referred to beliefs less often when talking to their children than mothers whose Pacific identities were weaker (Slaughter & Perez-Zapata, 2014; Taumoepeau, 2015). Samoan and Vanuatu children may be relatively slow to attribute false beliefs because they take longer to recognize that such beliefs exist relative to cultures where minds are less opaque. Interestingly, however, Vanuatu children’s performance varied by context. Vanuatu children who lived in towns showed more advanced performance than those who lived in rural settings, suggesting that the social contexts within a given cultural setting also influence how children come to understand the nature of people’s thoughts (Dixson et al., 2018).

      What Do You Think?

      1 Is the development of theory of mind universally important? That is, is theory of mind important in all cultures? How might context determine the relevance of theory of mind?

      2 How does theory of mind contribute to moral reasoning and behavior?

      Cross-cultural research suggests that children in diverse cultures in Europe, Africa, Asia, Southeast Asia, and North and South America differentiate moral, social conventional, and personal issues (Killen, McGlothlin, & Lee-Kim, 2002; Turiel, 1998; Yau & Smetana, 2003). However, cultural differences in socialization contribute to children’s conceptions. For example, a study of Chinese children ages 3 to 4 and 5 to 6 showed that, similar to Western children, the Chinese children overwhelmingly considered personal issues as permissible and up to the child, rather than the adults. The children’s consideration of moral transgressions varied. The Chinese children tended to focus on the intrinsic consequences of the acts for others’ welfare and fairness, as compared with the emphasis on avoiding punishment common in Western samples of preschoolers (Yau & Smetana, 2003). These differences are consistent with cultural preferences for collectivism and individualism. Whereas Western parents tend to emphasize individuality and independence, Chinese parents tend to emphasize children’s obligations to the family and community (Chao, 1995; Yau & Smetana, 2003). One study of 4-year-old Chinese children and their mothers showed that mothers consistently drew children’s attention to transgressions, emphasizing the consequences for others. The children learned quickly and were able to spontaneously discuss their mothers’ examples and strategies, as well as reenact them in their own interactions, and their explanations reflected their own understanding of rules and expectations in their own terms, rather than reflecting simple memorization (Wang, Bernas, & Eberhard, 2008).

      How adults discuss moral issues, such as truth telling, harm, and property rights, influences how children come to understand these issues. When adults discuss moral issues in ways that are sensitive to the child’s developmental needs, children develop more sophisticated conceptions of morality and advance in their moral reasoning (Janssens & Dekovic, 1997; Walker & Taylor, 1991). As we have seen, there are cultural differences in how people think about moral and conversational issues—and these conceptualizations are communicated, internalized, and transformed by children as they construct their own concepts about morality. Culture also influences how we think about others and our ability to take their perspectives, as discussed in the Cultural Influences on Development feature.

      Thinking in Context 7.5

      1 Evaluate the social learning and cognitive-developmental perspectives on moral development. What are the strengths and weaknesses of each? In your view, is one better able to account for moral development than another? Why or why not?

      2 How might cultural values influence moral development? Is moral development culture free (i.e., is it an area in which people around the world show the same developmental progression)? Why or why not?

      Early Childhood Education

      Many children attend kindergarten prior to entering elementary school, but only 15 states require children to complete kindergarten (Education Commission of the States, 2014). Early education is important for children’s cognitive, social, and emotional development. Preschool programs provide educational experiences for children ages 2 to 5.

      Child-Centered and Academically Centered Preschool Programs

      There are two general approaches to early childhood education. Academically centered preschool programs emphasize providing children with structured learning environments in which teachers deliver direct instruction on letters, numbers, shapes, and academic skills. Child-centered preschool programs take a constructivist approach that encourages children to actively build their own understanding of the world through observing, interacting with objects and people, and engaging in a variety of activities that allow them to manipulate materials and interact with teachers and peers (Kostelnik, Soderman, Whiren, & Rupiper, 2015). Children learn by doing, through play, and learn to problem solve, get along with others, communicate, and self-regulate.

      Montessori schools, first created in the early 1900s by the Italian physician and educator Maria Montessori (1870–1952), exemplify the child-centered approach, in which children are viewed as active constructors of their own development and are given freedom in choosing their activities. Teachers act as facilitators, providing a range of activities and materials, demonstrating ways of exploring them, and providing help when the child asks. The Montessori approach is credited with fostering independence, self-regulation, and cognitive and problem-solving skills.

      In this Montessori classroom, children explore and play together.

      AP Photo/Lori Wolfe

      Brain and Biological Influences on Development

      Brain-Based Education

      Effective instruction emphasizes active learning through creative play, artwork, physical activity, and social play.

      Washington Post/Getty

      Children play an active role in their own cognitive development by interacting with the world. Some educators advocate for brain-based education that capitalizes on children’s natural inclinations toward active learning. Brain-based education views learning as multidimensional, including more than academics. In its simplest sense, brain-based education encourages children to develop all aspects of their brains, tapping physical, musical, creative, cognitive, and other abilities. Given that the brain changes with experience, enriched everyday experiences such as learning a musical instrument, role-playing, and expanding vocabulary may alter children’s brains.

      Neurological researchers, however, are critical