Makers of Electricity. James J. Walsh

the advancement of physical knowledge. Be it said in passing, that Bacon, eminent as he undoubtedly was in the realm of the higher philosophy, was, nevertheless, neither a mathematician nor a man of science; he never put to a practical test the rules which he laid down with such certitude and expectancy for the guidance of physical inquiry. Moreover, there is not a single discovery in science made during the three centuries that have elapsed since the promulgation of the Baconian doctrine that can be ascribed to it; it has been steadily ignored by men renowned in the world for their scientific achievements and has been absolutely barren of results.

      Peregrinus, on the other hand, does not stop to enumerate opinions, he does not even quote Aristotle; but he experiments, observes, reasons and draws conclusions which he puts to the further test of experiment before finally accepting them. Then and then only does he rise from the order of the physicist to that of the philosopher, from correlating facts and phenomena to the discovery of the laws which govern them and the causes that produce them. Furthermore, he was in no hurry to let the world know that he was grinding lodestones one day and pivoting compass-needles the next; what he cared for supremely was to discover facts, new phenomena, new methods. Peregrinus was not an essayist, nor was he a man of mere book-learning. He was a clear-headed thinker, a close and resourceful worker, a man who preferred facts to phrases and observation to speculation.

      At one period of his life, Master Peter applied his ingenuity to the solution of a problem in practical optics, involving the construction of a burning-mirror of large dimensions somewhat after the manner of Archimedes; but though he spent three years on the enterprise and a correspondingly large sum of money, we are not told by Friar Bacon, who mentions the fact, what measure of success was achieved. Bacon, however, avails himself of the occasion to insinuate a possible cause of failure, for he says that nothing is difficult of accomplishment to his friend unless it be for want of means.

      Centuries later, the French naturalist Buffon took up the same optical problem, with a view to showing that the feat attributed to Archimedes during the siege of Syracuse by the Romans was not impossible of accomplishment. For this purpose, he used 168 small mirrors in the construction of a large concave reflector, with which he ignited wood at a distance of 150 feet and succeeded in melting lead at a distance of 140 feet. As this was done in the winter time in Paris, it was concluded that it would have been quite possible to set a Roman trireme on fire from a safe distance by the concentrated energy of a Sicilian sun.

      If Peregrinus was alert in mind, he appears to have been very active in body. Prompted, no doubt, by the higher motives of Christian faith and perhaps a little, too, by his fondness for travel and adventure, he took the cross in early life and joined one of the crusading expeditions of the time. That he went to the land of the paynim, we have no direct evidence; but we infer the fact from the title of Peregrinus or Pilgrim, by which he is known, his full name being Pierre le Pélérin de Maricourt, or, in the Latinized form, Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt.

      In 1269, we find him engaged in a military expedition undertaken by Charles Duke of Anjou, for the purpose of bringing back to his allegiance as King of the Two Sicilies the revolted city of Lucera in Southern Italy. He served in what might be called the engineering corps of the army, and was engaged in fortifying the camp and constructing engines of defense and attack. Unlike his companions in arms, Peregrinus does not allow himself to be wholly absorbed with military duties, nor does he waste his leisure hours in frivolous amusements; his mind is on higher things; he is engrossed with a problem in practical mechanics which required him to devise a piece of mechanism that would keep an armillary sphere in motion for a time.

      In outlining the necessary mechanism, as he conceived it, he was gradually led to consider the general and more fascinating problem of perpetual motion itself, with the result that he waxed somewhat enthusiastic when he thought that he saw the possibility of constructing an ever-turning wheel in which the motive power would be magnetic attraction, the attraction of a lodestone for a number of iron teeth arranged at equal distances on the periphery of a wheel. The device looked well on paper, beyond which stage it was not carried, perhaps for want of leisure, or more probably for want of the necessary material and tools. Had Peregrinus been able to test his theoretical views on the magnetic motor by actual experiment, the delusive character of perpetual motion would have been recognized at an early epoch in the world's history, and much time and money spared for more profitable investment.

      This very wheel, which was designed in the trenches before Lucera in 1269, was probably the cause of the withering rebuke which Justin Huntly McCarthy administers in his "History of the French Revolution," Vol. I., p. 256, where he says: "In the long record of rascaldom from Peregrinus to Bamfylde Moore Carew, no single rascal stands forward with such magnificent effrontery, such majestic impudence, such astonishing success as Cagliostro." To say the least, this is a very serious slip of the pen on the part of the Irish historian of the French Revolution, in which a scientific pioneer of the first rank and a patriot of exalted type is mistaken for a charlatan of the deepest dye.

      Although Peregrinus puts the burden of constructing his wheel on others, he does not appear to have considered it a vain conceit; for, in the beginning of the last chapter of the "Epistola" he says: "In this chapter, I will make known to you the construction of a wheel which, in a remarkable manner, moves continuously." He is writing from Southern Italy to his friend Siger (Syger, Sygerus), at home in Picardy; and that this friend may the better comprehend the mechanism of the wheel, he proceeds to describe in a systematic manner the various properties of the lodestone, all of which he had investigated and many of which he had discovered. The "Epistola" of Peregrinus is, therefore, the first treatise on the magnet ever written; it stands as the first great landmark in magnetic philosophy.

The work is divided into two parts—the first contains ten chapters and the latter three. "At your request," he says to his friend, "I will make known to you in an unpolished narrative the undoubted though hidden virtue of the lodestone, concerning which philosophers, up to the present time, give us no information. Out of affection for you, I will write in simple style about things entirely unknown to the ordinary individual."

      

Fig. 1 The Double Pivoted Needle of Petrus Peregrinus, A.D., 1269

      After this declaration as to the original character of his work Peregrinus proceeds: "You must know that whoever wishes to experiment should be acquainted with the nature of things; he must also be skilled in manipulation, in order that by means of this stone, he may produce those marvelous results."

      The titles of the chapters will give an idea of the comprehensive character of the magnetic work accomplished by the author and, at the same time, will serve to show how much was known about the lodestone in the thirteenth century.

      PART I.

       Chap. I. Purpose of this work.

       II. Qualifications of the experimenter.

       III. Characteristics of a good lodestone.

       IV. How to distinguish the poles of a lodestone.

       V. How to tell which pole is north and which south.

       VI. How one lodestone attracts another.

       VII. How iron touched by a lodestone turns towards the

       poles of the world.

       VIII. How a lodestone attracts iron.

       IX. Why the north pole of one lodestone attracts the south

       pole of another, and vice versa. X. An inquiry into the natural virtue of the lodestone. PART II. Chap. I. Construction of an instrument for measuring the azimuth of the sun, the moon or any star when in the horizon. II. Construction of a better instrument for the same purpose. III. The art of making a wheel of perpetual motion.

      An attentive reading of the thirteen chapters of this treatise of 3,500 words will show that:

      (1) Peregrinus assigns a definite position to what he calls the poles of a lodestone and gives practical directions for determining which is north and which south.

      (2) He establishes the two fundamental laws of magnetism, that like