Makers of Electricity. James J. Walsh

king ought always to guide themselves by justice, which is the connecting medium between God and the world, at all times to give their guerdon to the good and their punishment to the Wicked, to each according to his deserts."[3]

      It will be necessary to give a few more extracts from writers of the first half of the thirteenth century in order to show how little was known about the magnet and how crude were the early appliances used in navigation when Peregrinus appeared on the scene.

      Cardinal Jacques de Vitry, who lived in the East for some years, wrote his "History of the Orient" between the years 1215 and 1220, in which he says:

      "An iron needle after touching the lodestone, turns towards the north star, so that such a needle is necessary for those who navigate the seas."

      This passage of the celebrated Cardinal seems to indicate that even then the compass was widely known and commonly used in navigation.

      Neckam (1157–1217), the Augustinian Abbot of Cirencester, wrote in his "Utensilibus":

       "Among the stores of a ship, there must be a needle mounted on a dart which will oscillate and turn until the point looks to the north; the sailors will thus know how to direct their course when the pole-star is concealed through the troubled state of the atmosphere."

      This passage is of historical value, as it contains what is probably the earliest known reference to a mounted or pivoted compass. Prior to the introduction of this mode of suspension, the needle was floated on a straw, in a reed, on a piece of cork or a strip of wood, all of which modes of flotation, when taken in conjunction with the unsteadiness of the vessel in troubled waters, must have made observation difficult and unsatisfactory.

      Brunetto Latini (1230–1294) makes a passing reference to the new magnetic knowledge in his "Livres dou Tresor," which he wrote in 1260, during his exile in Paris.

      "The sailors navigate the seas," he says, "guided by the two stars called tramontanes; and each of the two parts of the lodestone directs the end of the needle that has touched it to the particular star to which that part of the stone itself turns."

      Though a statesman, orator and philosopher of ability, the preceptor of Dante in Florence and guest of Friar Bacon in Oxford, Brunetto has not got the philosophy of the needle quite right in this passage; for the part that has been touched by the north end of a lodestone will acquire south polarity and will not, therefore, turn towards the same "tramontane" as the end of the stone by which it was touched.

      Dante himself admitted the occult influence on the compass-needle that emanates from the pole-star when he wrote:

      "Out of the heart of one of the new lights

       There came a voice that, needle to the star,

       Made me appear in turning thitherward.

       Paradise, XII., 28–30.

      The next writer on the compass is Raymond Lully (1236–1315), who was noted for his versatility, voluminous writings and extensive travels as well as for the zeal which he displayed in converting the African Moors. Lully writes in his "De Contemplatione": "As the needle after touching the lodestone, turns to the north, so the mariners' needle directs them over the sea."

      This brings us to the last of our ante-Peregrinian writers who make definite allusions to the use of the compass for navigation purposes, viz., Roger Bacon, one of the glories of the thirteenth century as he would be of the twentieth. It was at the request of his patron, Pope Clement IV., that Bacon wrote his "Opus Majus," a work in which he treats of all the sciences and in which he advocates the experimental method as the right one for the study of natural phenomena and the only one that will serve to extend the boundaries of human knowledge. In a section on the magnet, a clear distinction is drawn between the physical properties of the two ends of a lodestone; for "iron which has been touched by a lodestone," he says, "follows the end by which it has been touched and turns away from the other." Besides being a recognition of magnetic polarity, this is equivalent to saying that unlike poles attract while like poles repel each other. Bacon further remarks, by way of corroboration, that if a strip of iron be floated in a basin, the end that was touched by the lodestone will follow the stone, while the other end will flee from it as a lamb from the wolf. There is, however, an earlier recognition known of the polarity of the lodestone; for Abbot Neckam, fifty years before, called attention to the dual nature of the physical action of the lodestone, attracting in one part (say) by sympathy and repelling at the other by antipathy. It was the common belief in Bacon's time and for centuries after, that the compass-needle was directed by the pole-star, often called the sailor's star; but Bacon himself did not think so, preferring to believe with Peregrinus, that it was controlled not by any one star or by any one constellation, but by the entire celestial sphere. Other contemporaries of his sought the cause of the directive property not in the heavens at all, but in the earth itself, attributing it to hypothetical mines of iron which, naturally enough, they located in regions situated near the pole. Peregrinus records this opinion, which he criticises and rejects, saying in Chapter X. that persons who hold such a doctrine "are ignorant of the fact that in many different parts of the globe the lodestone is found; from which it would follow that the needle should turn in different directions, according to the locality, which is contrary to experience." A little further on he gives his own view, saying: "It is evident from the foregoing chapters that we must conclude that not only from the north pole (of the world), but also from the south pole rather than from the veins of mines, virtue flows into the poles of the lodestone."

      Observations had to accumulate and much experimentation had to be done before it was finally established that the cause of the directive property of the magnet is not to be sought in the remote star depths at all, but in the earth itself, the whole terrestrial globe acting as a colossal magnet, partly in virtue of magnetic ore lying near the surface and partly also in virtue of electrical currents, due to solar heat, circulating in the crust of the earth.

      Of the early years of Pierre le Pélérin (Petrus Peregrinus), nothing is known save that he was born of wealthy parents in Maricourt, a village of Picardy in Northern France. From his academic title of Magister, we infer that he received the best instruction available at the time, probably in the University of Paris, which was then in the height of its fame. His reputation for mathematical learning and mechanical skill crossed the Channel and reached Friar Bacon in the University of Oxford. In his "Opus Tertium," the Franciscan Friar records the esteem in which he held his Picard friend, saying: "I know of only one person who deserves praise for his work in experimental philosophy, because he does not care for the discourses of men or their wordy warfare, but quietly and diligently pursues the works of wisdom. Therefore it is that what others grope after blindly, as bats in the evening twilight, this man contemplates in all their brilliancy because he is master of experiment."

      Continuing the appraisal of his Gallic friend's achievements, he says: "He knows all natural sciences, whether pertaining to medicine and alchemy or to matters celestial and terrestrial. He has worked diligently in the smelting of ores and also in the working of minerals; he is thoroughly acquainted with all sorts of arms and implements used in military service and in hunting, besides which he is skilled in agriculture and also in the measurement of lands. It is impossible to write a useful or correct treatise on experimental philosophy without mentioning this man's name. Moreover, he pursues knowledge for its own sake; for if he wished to obtain royal favor, he could easily find sovereigns to honor and enrich him."

      This is at once a beautiful tribute to the work and character of Peregrinus and an emphatic recognition of the paramount importance of laboratory methods for the advancement of learning. It is evident from such testimony, coming as it does from an eminent member of the brotherhood of science, that the world had not to wait for the advent of Chancellor Bacon or for the publication of his Novum Organum in 1620, to learn how to undertake and carry out a scientific research to a reliable issue. Call the method what you will, inductive, deductive or both, the method advocated by the Franciscan friar of the thirteenth century was the one followed at all times from Archimedes to Peregrinus and from Peregrinus to Gilbert, none of whom knew anything of Lord Bacon's pompous phrases and lofty commendation of the inductive method of inquiry