Studies in the Theory of Descent, Volume I. Weismann August

able to distinguish this primary metagenesis from the secondary metagenesis arising from metamorphosis.

      It is not here my intention to enter into the ultimate causes of metagenesis; in this subject we should only be able to advance by making vague hypotheses. The phenomenon of seasonal dimorphism, with which this work has mainly to deal, is evidently far removed from metagenesis, and it was to make this clear that the foregoing observations were brought forward. The characters common in the origin of metagenesis are to be found, according to the views previously set forth, in the facts that here the faculty of asexual and of sexual reproduction is always distributed among several phyletic stages of development which succeed each other in an ascending series (progressive metagenesis of Haeckel), whereas I find differences only in the fact that the power of asexual propagation may (in metagenesis) be either newly acquired (larva of Cecidomyia) or preserved from previous ages (Hydroida). It seems that in this process sexual reproduction is without exception lost by the earlier, and remains confined solely to the most recent stages.

      From the investigations on seasonal dimorphism it appears that a cycle of generations can arise in an entirely different way. In this case a series of generations originally alike are made dissimilar by external influences. This appears to me of the greatest importance, since seasonal dimorphism is without doubt closely related to that mode of reproduction which has hitherto been exclusively designated as heterogenesis, and a knowledge of its mode of origination must therefore throw light on the nature and origin of heterogenesis in general.

      In seasonal dimorphism, as I have attempted to show, it is the direct action of climate, and indeed chiefly that of temperature, which brings about the change in some of the generations. Since these generations have been exposed to the alternating influence of the summer and winter temperature a periodical dimorphism has been developed – a regular cycle of dissimilar generations. It has already been asserted that the consecutive generations of a species comport themselves with respect to heredity in a manner precisely similar to that of the ontogenetic stages, and at the same time such succeeding generations point out the parallelism between metamorphosis and heterogenesis. If influences capable of directly or indirectly producing changes operate on any particular stage of development, these changes are always transmitted to the same stage. Upon this metamorphosis depends. In a precisely similar manner changes which operated periodically on certain generations (1, 3, 5, for instance) are transmitted to these generations only, and not to the intermediate ones. Upon this depends heterogenesis. We have just been led to the comprehension of heterogenesis by cyclical heredity, by the fact that a cycle is produced whenever a series of generations exists under regularly alternating influences. In this cycle newly acquired changes, however minute in character at first, are only transmitted to a later, and not to the succeeding generation, appearing only in the one corresponding, i.e. in that generation which exists under similar transforming influences. Nothing can more clearly show the extreme importance which the conditions of life must have upon the formation and further development of species than this fact. At the same time nothing shows better that the action of these conditions is not suddenly and violently exerted, but that it rather takes place by small and slow operations. In these cases the long-continued accumulation of imperceptibly small variations proves to be the magic means by which the forms of the organic world are so powerfully moulded. By the application of even the greatest warmth nobody would be able to change the winter form of A. Levana into the summer form; nevertheless, the summer warmth, acting regularly on the second and third generations of the year, has, in the course of a lengthened period, stamped these two generations with a new form without the first generation being thereby changed. In the same region two different climatic varieties have been produced (just as in the majority of cases climatic varieties occur only in separate regions) which alternate with each other, and thus give rise to a cycle of which each generation propagates itself sexually.

      But even if seasonal dimorphism is to be ascribed to heterogenesis, it must by no means be asserted that those cases of cyclical propagation hitherto designated as heterogenesis are completely identical with seasonal dimorphism. Their identity extends only to their origin and manner of development, but not to the mode of operation of the causes which bring about their transformation. Both phenomena have a common mode of origination, arising from similar (monomorphic) sexual generations and course of development, a cycle of generations with gradually diverging characters coming into existence by the action of alternating influences. On the other hand, the nature of the changes by which the secondary differs from the primary generation may be referred to another mode of action of the exciting causes. In seasonal dimorphism the differences between the two generations are much less than in other cases of heterogenesis. These differences are both quantitatively less, and are likewise qualitative, affecting only characters of biological insignificance.41 The variations in question are mostly restricted to the marking and colouring of the wings and body, occasionally affecting also the form of the wing, and in a few cases the size of the body (Plebeius Amyntas), whilst the bodily structure – so far at least as my investigations extend – appears to be the same in both generations.42

      The state of affairs is quite different in the remaining cases of heterogenesis; here the entire structure of the body appears to be more or less changed, and its size is often very different, nearly all the internal organs differing in the two generations. According to Claus,43 “we can scarcely find any other explanation of the mode of origination of heterogenesis than the gradual and slow advantageous adaptation of the organization to important varying conditions of life” – a judgment in which this author is certainly correct. In all such cases the change does not affect unimportant characters, as it does in butterflies, but parts of biological or physiological value; and we cannot, therefore, consider such changes to have originated through the direct action of altered conditions of life, but indirectly through natural selection or adaptation.

      Thus, the difference between seasonal dimorphism and the other known cases of heterogenesis consists in the secondary form in which the species appears in the former originating through the direct action of external conditions, whilst in the latter this form most probably originates through the indirect action of such influences. The first half of the foregoing proposition is alone capable of provisional proof, but it is in the highest degree probable that the latter half is also correct. Naturally we cannot say to what extent the direct action of external conditions plays also a part in true heterogenesis, as there have been as yet no experiments made on its origin. That direct action, working to a certain extent co-operatively, plays only a secondary part, while the chief cause of the change is to be found in adaptation, no one can doubt who keeps in view, for instance, the mode of propagation discovered by Leuckart in Ascaris nigrovenosa. In this worm, the one generation lives free in the water, and the other generation inhabits the lungs of frogs, the two generations differing from one another in size of body and structure of internal organs to an extent only possible with the true Nematoda.

      To prevent possible misunderstanding, let it be finally noted – even if superfluous – that the changes causing the diversity of the two generations in seasonal dimorphism and heterogenesis are not of such a nature that the value of different “specific characters” can be attached to them. Distinctly defined specific characters are well known not to occur generally, and it would therefore be erroneous to attach but little value to the differences in seasonal dimorphism because these chiefly consist in the colouring and marking of the wings. The question here under consideration is not whether two animal forms have the value of species or of mere varieties – a question which can never be decided, since the reply always depends upon individual opinion of the value of the distinctions in question, and the idea of both species and varieties is moreover purely conventional. The question is, rather, whether the distinguishing characters possess an equal constancy – that is, whether they are transmitted with the same force and accuracy to all individuals; and whether they occur, therefore, in such a manner that they can be practically employed as specific characters. With respect to this, it cannot be doubtful for a moment that the colouring and marking of a butterfly possess exactly the same value as the constant characters in any other group of animals, such as the palate-folds in mice, the structure of the teeth in mammals, the number and form of the wing and tail feathers in birds,

41

See my essay “Über den Einfluss der Isolirung auf die Artbildung.” Leipzig, 1872.

42

[In the case of monogoneutic species which, by artificial ‘forcing,’ have been made to give two generations in the year, it has generally been found that the reproductive system has been imperfectly developed in the second brood. A minute anatomical investigation of the sexual organs in the two broods of seasonally dimorphic insects would be of great interest, and might lead to important results. R.M.]

43

“Grundzüge der Zoologie.” 2nd ed. Leipzig, 1872. Introduction.