Physiology: The Science of the Body. Ernest G. Martin

do, become inactive whenever the weather becomes cold. As each muscle cell shortens it pulls upon the connective tissue that surrounds it; this communicates with the connective tissue of other cells, and all the connective tissue within the mass of the muscle fastens to the very stout sheets or cords of the same at the ends which are called tendons, by which the muscles are attached to the bones. Thus, although the pull of any single cell is so feeble as to be scarcely measurable, when hundreds or thousands of them pull all at once the effect may be very powerful.

      We are familiar with the very wide range of effort that our muscles can show. They may contract with utmost delicacy, as when we hold a humming bird’s egg in our fingers, or they may pull with a force, in our largest muscles, of several hundred pounds. Of course this possibility of variation is of great advantage in our use of our muscles. It depends upon the very large number of individual fibers of which even our smallest muscles are made up. Whenever any single fiber contracts, it pulls to its full extent; if only a few become active, the pull of the whole muscle will be slight; as more come into action, more force will be exerted; the muscle will show its utmost power when all the fibers are contracting at once. We are conscious of greater mental effort when we make a powerful muscular contraction. This can be explained as due to the greater nervous discharge required to excite all the muscle fibers at once.

      One feature of muscular action calls for an additional word. This is the temporary loss of power, resulting from too long-continued use, which is called fatigue. We know that a well-constructed machine can operate day in and day out without having to stop to rest; why cannot our muscles do the same? Evidently the necessity of resting cuts down the possibilities of life more than any other one thing; our real life is only two-thirds as long as it counts up in years because we have to spend one-third of the time in sleep. Of course muscular fatigue is not the only kind; there is nervous fatigue, as well, about which something will be said later. The activity of our muscles is based on functional metabolism; it follows, therefore, that fatigue is also due to metabolism. We can think of two ways in which metabolism might cause fatigue; the first of these is by using up the materials which furnish energy; clearly no cells can go on working after they have exhausted their supplies of fuel. The second results from the fact that metabolism produces waste products. It is a familiar fact of chemistry that when the substances formed in chemical processes are not removed they interfere with the processes themselves. In active muscles very rapid metabolism is going on and large quantities of waste substance are being formed; these have to be discharged from the cells into the surrounding fluid, and removed from there in turn by the blood. We can easily imagine that this might not take place as fast as necessary to keep the cells from becoming more or less clogged; in fact this clogging is exactly what happens, so that muscles begin to show fatigue some time before their supplies of fuel material are used up.

      One familiar fact of muscular fatigue is that soreness, which indicates that fatigue has really

      

Photo, Metropolitan Museum MUSCULAR DEVELOPMENT OF AN ATHLETE—THE DISCUS THROWER OF MYRON

      

A MODERN “VICTORY”—MISS SABIE AT PRACTICE

      been present in large amount, occurs much more often when we use our muscles in ways to which we are not accustomed than when they are exercised according to habit. It is the experience of every one who does manual labor that when he gets a new job, one that calls for different use of the muscles than he has been in the habit of, his muscles are very sore until he is “broken in.” After that, although he does as much or even more work than at first, he no longer becomes sore. This is explained as being due to two things. First, whenever we make an unaccustomed movement we overstimulate our muscles; that is, we call more fibers into action than are necessary to do the job; as the motion becomes familiar we cut down the action to that which just meets the demand. Thus there is a great deal more metabolism than necessary when unfamiliar motions are being made. Then, secondly, there is a spot in every muscle cell, just at the point where the nerve makes its connection with the muscle, that is more easily fatigued than any other part of the muscle cell. This spot, by becoming fatigued first, tends to cause metabolism to stop in time to prevent the rest of the cell from being seriously fatigued. Only when we are so much interested in what we are doing that we pay no attention to the fatigue of this safety spot, or when necessity keeps us at work after we would quit if we had our own way, do we push the metabolism so far that muscular soreness results. Other types of fatigue, including feelings of exhaustion, are due to effects on the nervous system, and will be described when we have that system before us.

      Before we leave the subject of the skeletal muscles it will be interesting to say a word about the different kinds of motions that they bring about. We have already seen that they work by pulling at the joints, and we have no intention of enlarging on that topic. What we want to do here is to group the bodily motions into a few classes, regardless of what joints are actually moved. First, and most important, comes locomotion; by that we mean any motions that move the body from one place to another. Under that head we have walking, running, swimming, jumping; in birds, flying. Next in order comes grasping; this includes all motions by which we take hold of anything. We can realize the importance of this group of movements when we think that our fore limbs are specifically grasping organs, while in the great majority of animals they are organs of locomotion along with the hind limbs. Originally grasping had to do, undoubtedly, with the taking of food and not much else. In civilized man we have in addition the use of all kinds of tools from the coarsest to the finest. In most four-legged animals the chief organ of grasping is the mouth. We still use our mouths to some extent as grasping organs, and could probably learn to make even more use of them in that direction if forced to it. Chewing and swallowing make up a group of movements concerned primarily with the handling of food after it has been grasped. Not much need be said about them. Of small extent but great importance are the motions connected with sense perception; these include chiefly the motions of the body, neck, and eyes in vision; we are constantly turning to look at something; in such animals as horses movements of the ears help greatly in hearing; and both man and animals make sniffing motions to increase the keenness of smelling. There is a group of motions devoted to voice production (including breathing). In man the vocal cords, tongue, and muscles of the cheeks are the chief muscles that have to do with the voice, not including the muscles of breathing, which, of course, are essential. The interesting things about the vocal cords are the excessive fineness of their operation, enabling expert singers to produce tones that vary by only a few vibrations a second, and the amazing exactitude of the control that the nerves have over them, so that good singers can set them at the tension needed for producing a particular tone with absolute certainty. The tongue is not a single muscle, but a mass of several muscles working one upon the other. It plays a part both in voice production and in the chewing of food. As an organ of voice production it helps by changing the shape of the mouth cavity. Speech depends very largely on this, since not the tension of the vocal cords but the shape of the mouth and throat determines the making of letters and syllables.

      In addition to these familiar uses of the muscles there is a use which is just as important but about which we are apt to think less. This is their use in connection with posture, the taking and holding of particular bodily positions. Posture is unlike other muscular activities in several things. In the first place there is a steady, but rather feeble, tension which can be held without marked fatigue for long periods; all other forms of muscular contraction become severely fatiguing rather quickly if held steadily. In the second place the nervous control of posture seems to be different in some respects from our ordinary control of our muscles. Finally there is some doubt as to whether the contractions of the muscles themselves are the same. Measurements of the functional metabolism of posture show that it is much less than would be expected if the muscular action were of the ordinary type. This, of course, explains why posture is less fatiguing than other forms of activity.