Asian America. Pawan Dhingra

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Название Asian America
Автор произведения Pawan Dhingra
Жанр Социология
Серия
Издательство Социология
Год выпуска 0
isbn 9781509534302



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would not be able to cross or blur gendered boundaries so easily.

      When sex differences are given meaning by the wider society, then they become gender differences passed onto the next generation. As we become socialized into gender roles, gender becomes natural and taken for granted. Children when born have a sex but no gender. They must learn to “do” their gender (West and Zimmerman 1987). For instance, girls often cross their legs when sitting, unlike boys. These are learned behaviors. Teachers respond differently to similar behaviors by boys and girls, thereby creating gender differences for children (Martin 1998). The association of sex with expected behaviors is mostly false. There may be men who are more nurturing than other men and even more nurturing than some women. Even when expected differences do exist, it need not lead to clearly defined roles. For instance, on average men may be more aggressive and women more nurturing. If so, this can mean women are well suited to careers as psychologists, political leaders, and the like, rather than confined within the domestic sphere (Bem 1993).

      How one experiences gender depends on one’s race and vice versa, which again highlights its socially constructed nature. While we speak of “racial stereotypes,” these stereotypes differ by gender, as do their effects. For instance, white men are, on average, paid more than white women who have had the same education, while white women are paid more than black women with the same education (M. Kim 2009). Even within a single group, depictions can vary by class, occupation, or geography. Collins (2000) delineates different media depictions of black women. As black women navigate out of one socioeconomic status and into another (for example, from working-class/blue-collar to middle-class/professional), they are still framed as needing to be monitored by white men, white women, and/or black men, while how they are monitored will differ.

      Online resource:For an account of how gender and race intersect in the experience of a multiracial Asian-American woman victimized by sexual assault as a college student, read: https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/24/opinion/chanel-miller-know-my-name.html

      Sexuality, similarly, is a social construction. Evidence that sexual preferences are influenced, not predetermined, by genetic dispositions (Dececco and Elia 1993) can be seen as a breakthrough in the advancement of civil rights for lesbians and gays, for we should not discriminate against people based on genetic differences. That said, how is sexuality a social construction? While sexual preference is not entirely socially constructed, it still stems significantly from societal influence (see our discussion of sexuality and heteronormativity in the following section). Regardless of whether people are biologically predisposed to certain sexual orientations, the media and society at large give different meanings to homosexuals than to heterosexuals. The differences are framed not merely in terms of sexual partner preferences but in terms of entire lifestyles. Typically, the media and society at large depict homosexuals and their lifestyles as deviant and in a generally negative light, while heterosexuals and their lifestyles are considered normal, positive, and ultimately desirable. Yet the prospect that we have a single sexuality is dubious, even if we are predisposed to one versus another. Queer theorists maintain that we have multiple sexualities, that we can move in between sexual acts with one sex and then the other based on circumstances (Stein 1997). We can be attracted to different sexes at different times but, given the dominance of heteronormative thinking (which we discuss in the next section), we may suppress those feelings.

      The term “queer” highlights the mutable nature of sexuality and sexual relationships as well as the limitations of a heteronormative outlook. It allows more readily for transgender and transsexual individuals and identities, which defy static notions of gender and sexuality. Once considered a derogatory term that straight people used to insult, denigrate, and disparage homosexuals, the term has been reclaimed by many who identify as homosexual in more recent years who have infused it with more positive meaning. Indeed, there are people who engage in straight relationships and may not have ever been in a homosexual relationship, but who may claim a “queer” identity as a critique of heteronormativity. Others, however, prefer to use the term “LGBTQIA” to include the range of nonnormative sexualities people may have (lesbian, gay, bisexual, queer or questioning, intersex, asexual or ally). With respect to gendered identities, many people have made it a standard practice to state their gendered pronouns when they introduce themselves to others (i.e. My name is Robyn and I use she/her pronouns; my name is Pawan and I use he/his/him pronouns).

       Sexuality and heteronormativity

       Sexuality and intersections of race and gender