Facebook. Taina Bucher

either explicitly or implicitly contributed to developing the ideas in this book. Thank you: Anne Helmond, David Nieborg, my colleagues in the ‘Don’t take it personal’ project team, and the participants from the Media Aesthetics seminars at the Department of Media and Communication, University of Oslo, for reading drafts at various stages of completion and providing critical feedback. Your comments have greatly improved the final product. Thank you also to the anonymous reviewers for their time and efforts in making this a better book. I am grateful to the many people I have met at conferences, workshops, and seminars, who have provided crucial insights into different aspects of Facebook. I am especially grateful to the informants from various NGOs and human rights organizations whose input and generosity helped to shape my understanding of Facebook. Thank you also to research assistant Louise Bechmann Ødegaard Jensen for her research in the early stages of book writing. This book benefited from financial support by the ‘Digitization and Diversity’ project funded by the Research Council of Norway. Thank you to project leader Anne-Britt Gran for granting the time and resources to work on this book as part of the project.

      Finally, my immense gratitude goes to friends and family. You deserve so much more than a status update. Georg, your patience and support means everything. I dedicate this book to Alvar.

Introduction: Facebook is Facebook

      Everybody has a Facebook story. Whether it is the story of how a relationship started, or ended, how people found long-lost loved ones, how they learned about the weddings, births and divorces of old friends and acquaintances, Facebook has played – and still does – an important part in people’s personal and professional lives. Facebook entered my own life during the autumn of 2006 when I was a graduate student in London. Online social networking sites were a relatively new phenomenon; my lecturers talked about this new phenomenon called Web 2.0, and MySpace was very much a thing. So, when someone in my university network sent me a Facebook invitation, I did not think twice about it and filled out the blank blueish template with some personal details and started to add friends. My school friends in London all became members around the same time that autumn, approximately two years after Facebook first launched its site for a select few American Ivy League networks. Having gone to secondary school in Oslo, Norway, my Norwegian friends had yet to discover Facebook, so I sent off a couple of email invitations. One of the first messages on my Facebook wall came from one of my best friends, saying: ‘Hi Taina! Now I’m here! I’ll test this one too … usually sites like these only last a week or two for me, but now I’ve added a few pics so let’s see how it goes.’ I guess the rest is history. Not only did the site prove its staying power for my friends and me, but it also turned out to do so for a staggering 2.7 billion people worldwide.

Fifteen years after Facebook first launched, an approximate one-third of the world’s population uses one of its apps on a monthly basis (including Facebook, Messenger, WhatsApp and Instagram), nearly half of Americans get their news from the Facebook feed, and four petabytes of data are generated through the site each day. Facebook has become one of the most important advertising venues ever to exist, which essentially makes it an advertising business at its core. With nearly every marketer using Facebook advertising, the company made $75 billion in revenue for the twelve months ending 30 June 2020, along with a market capitalization of $805 billion as of September 2020.¹ These are not just impressive numbers but numbers with profound consequences. The fact that Facebook (and Google) essentially own the market for digital advertising means that other businesses whose business models depend on advertising, such as journalism, face huge problems. As every news executive I have talked to (in the Nordic region) seems to agree, the biggest competition to their respective brands and newspapers is not another newspaper, but Facebook and its powerful grip on the ad market. This is not just a commercial problem but something that has far-reaching consequences for journalism as a whole. Fewer revenues support fewer journalists, and fewer journalists and less time to do quality reporting ultimately means a loss of public-service journalism. Facebook’s power as a data-driven and programmatic advertisement platform has also become key to the ways in which politics plays out. While just a few years ago, scholars were mainly concerned with the creation of pages and profiles by election candidates, now we are beginning to see the complex ways in which Facebook’s advertising platform is used in political campaigning and what that might mean for election results, public discourse and the spread of misinformation and disinformation.

It may seem strange to begin a book on Facebook with two paragraphs describing the mundaneness of Facebook on the one hand, and the specific nature of Facebook as a data-driven ad company on the other. Yet, this is exactly what Facebook is all about: tensions and transitions. A Facebook ad released shortly after the infamous Cambridge Analytica scandal in 2018 usefully brings some of these tensions and transitions into view. Barely two weeks after Mark Zuckerberg testified in front of the US congressional lawmakers in April 2018, Facebook released its biggest ever brand marketing campaign under the tagline ‘Here Together’ (see also Chapter 1). Designed as a nostalgic field trip through Facebook’s connective potentials, the ad set out to remind people why they had signed up to Facebook in the first place, promising its users to do ‘more to keep you safe and protect your privacy so that we can all get back to what made Facebook good in the first place – Friends’. The ad tells a tale familiar to many Facebook users. A story that begins with friendship, develops into an expanded network of ‘friends and acquaintances’, reaches a point of conflict where too many ‘Friends’ make you participate less, or at the very least differently, and ends with a hope for a better future – whether this future includes Facebook or not. Beyond articulating a certain structure of feeling around the ways in which Facebook has changed from a simple friendship site to something much bigger, the ad reiterates another familiar story about Facebook. This is the idea of Facebook as a social medium. In calling for change, Facebook remains firm in positioning itself as a place for friends. Yet, as I will argue in this book, this tale no longer holds true, if it ever did.

Facebook is Facebook

The core argument of the book is that Facebook cannot adequately be understood as a social medium, nor is it another name for the internet, as some would claim. Facebook is Facebook. While this may seem like a tautological statement at first, I want to suggest that, far from being useless, claiming that Facebook is irreducible to something else might be more generative than many of the metaphors currently in use to make sense of Facebook. The fact that Facebook is Facebook speaks not just to its global corporate power but, more profoundly, to Facebook becoming a concept of sorts. Much scholarly, public and corporate discourse tends to talk about Facebook in metaphorical and (sub)categorical terms. In the company’s early days, it seemed relatively uncontroversial simply to frame Facebook as belonging to the category of social media or social network site. More recently it has become more common to frame Facebook as a platform or infrastructure. Multiple metaphors abound to help us grasp this thing called Facebook, some of which we will explore in this book. As the company grew bigger, its definitional boundaries exploded. What the many definitions and conceptions of Facebook in newspaper articles, lawsuits, congressional hearings, scholarly papers and company press reports suggest is that there seems to be a growing need for clarification as to what Facebook really is. The ontological question is not just interesting for philosophical and theoretical reasons, but serves a very practical and political purpose. In a world where Facebook and its founder and CEO, Mark Zuckerberg, exercise unprecedented power and the conversation on regulation has gained a new urgency, we might have to come to terms with the notion that Facebook cannot readily be compared to something else but must be taken for what it is – Facebook.

What does suggesting that Facebook is Facebook and entertaining the idea of Facebook as a concept involve? The answer to this question begins from another, a question that I am sure many readers have already asked themselves: ‘Why do we need a book on Facebook at this point, fifteen or more years after it first launched?’ Or, as one well-meaning colleague put it, ‘aren’t you afraid that a book on Facebook is going to be a bit dated at this point?’ If we think of Facebook as primarily a social network site, there might indeed