Lightning Rod Conference. Various

for the discharge is imperfect.

      A lightning conductor fulfils two functions: it facilitates the discharge of the electricity to the earth, so as to carry it off harmlessly, and it tends to prevent disruptive discharge by silently neutralising the conditions which determine such discharge in the neighbourhood of the conductor.

      To effect the first object a lightning conductor should offer a line of discharge more nearly perfect, and more accessible, than any other offered by the materials or contents of the edifice we wish to protect. To effect the second object the conductor should be surmounted by a point or points. Fine points and flames have the property of slowly and silently dissipating the electrical charges; they, in fact, act as safety valves.

      If all these conditions be fulfilled; if the points be high enough to be the most salient features of the building no matter from what direction the storm cloud may come, be of ample dimensions and in thoroughly perfect electrical connection with the earth, the edifice with all that it contains will be safe, and the conductor might even be surrounded by gunpowder in the heaviest storm without risk or danger.

      All accidents may be said to be due to a neglect of these simple elementary principles. The most frequent sources of failure are conductors deficient either in number, height, or conductivity, bad joints, or bad earth connections. There is no authentic case on record where a properly-constructed conductor failed to do its duty.

Section II.—A Statement of those features in the construction and erection of Lightning Conductors, respecting which there has been, or is, a difference of opinion, and the final decision of the Conference thereupon.

       Table of Contents

      Points.

      Material for Conductor.

      Size of Rod.

      Shape of Rod.

      (Rods, Tubes, Tape, Rope, Plait.)

      Joints.

      Protection of Rod.

      Attachment to Building.

      Earth Plates.

      Space Protected.

      Height of Upper Terminal.

      Testing Conductors.

      Internal Masses of Metal.

      External Masses of Metal.

      POINTS.—Starting with the extreme top, we have first to deal with the question of points. The utility of points was hotly contested rather more than a century since, and an abstract of the discussion will be found in Appendix F, page (79), and difference of opinion still exists as to their precise functions and value. The decision as to the best form of points is complicated by two opposing requirements (1), the sharper the point the more rapid the silent discharge of electricity, and, therefore, the more effective the conductor; but (2) the sharper the point the more easily is it destroyed by oxidation, or fused, should a heavy disruptive discharge fall upon it.

      Attempts have been made by the use of gold, silver, and platinum, to obtain a sharp point which should not only be durable, but, owing to its high melting point, resist fusion by a disruptive discharge. But such metals are very expensive, and the statements in Appendix F, pages (67, 69, 73, 103, 123, 128, and 139) prove that even platinum points are often damaged. Copper points whose sectional area is less than ·05 of a square inch are very liable to be melted. Lightning has even fused a copper rod ·10 sq. in. in sectional area, i.e., 0·35 in. in diameter, and there are many rods still standing of which the extremity has been melted into a button or knob.

      For these reasons it seems best to separate the double functions of the point, prolonging the upper terminal to the very summit, and merely bevelling it off, so that, if a disruptive discharge does take place, the full conducting power of the rod may be ready to receive it, and, therefore, that there may be no risk of melted particles of metal setting fire to the building, as has occurred. [Appendix F, p. (93).]

      At the same time, having regard to the importance of silent discharge from sharp points, we suggest that at one foot below the extreme top of the upper terminal there be firmly attached, by screws and solder, a copper ring, bearing three or four copper needles, each 6 inches long and tapering from ¼ inch diameter to as fine a point as can be made; and with the object of rendering the sharpness as permanent as possible, we advise that they be platinized, gilded, or nickel plated.

      Vanes, finials, and ornamental ironwork so frequently form the upper portion of edifices, that it is essential to consider their relation to the conductor. They should always be in perfect metallic connection with the conductor. The possibility of such metal work inducing the charge to desert the conductor for some other path is sometimes suggested, but it could not happen unless the conductor were out of order, e.g., of inadequate conducting power, or had an imperfect earth-contact.

      With respect to factory chimneys, a different practice prevails in England from that which is nearly universal on the Continent. In this country one straight rod is usually carried up on one side of the chimney to a height above the top about equal to the diameter of the chimney. On the Continent two arches of iron are put crosswise over the aperture of the chimney, and a vertical rod is carried up from the intersection. In both systems the upper terminal suffers from the corroding effect of the fumes from the chimney. Dr. Mann thought, Appendix F, p. (132), that considering the ready path for lightning afforded by the heated smoke discharged from chimneys, a coronal conductor should be placed upon them, as well as a multiple point. Messrs. Gray say, p. (9): “For high chimney shafts we fit a copper band round the top, and four points thereon connected to main down rod.” The Edinburgh Gas Works chimney, 341 feet high and 14 feet across at the top, was fitted with a conductor under the advice of Faraday, Appendix F, p. (89). It had an iron plate on the top; Faraday directed that the rod should be connected with this plate, and the upper terminal should rise vertically 6 feet above it.

      We are of opinion that a coronal or copper band, with stout copper points, each about 1 ft. long, at intervals of 2 or 3 ft. throughout the circumference, will make the most durable and generally useful protector for a factory chimney, but these points should be gilded or otherwise protected against corrosion.

      MATERIAL FOR CONDUCTOR.—Iron and copper are practically the only two metals which need consideration; brass, which has sometimes been used is so perishable that its employment is a self-evident error. We will assume the conductivity of equal lengths and weights of iron to be, in the case of steady currents of electricity,⅙th that of copper, and the cost of iron to be ⅑th that of copper, this would make the cost of copper for equal conducting power ⁹⁄₆ths, or 50 per cent. dearer than iron. But there are other matters to be considered: (1) the great weight and bulk of iron rods; (2) their deterioration by rust; (3) the serious obstruction offered by a rusty joint; (4) the suddenness of lightning discharge which modifies the conductivity; and lastly, that iron is so much more rigid than copper that (except in the form of iron wire rope, of which we shall speak hereafter) it can rarely be used in greater lengths than 20 feet, and thus numerous joints become necessary, whereas every needless joint should be avoided.

      As regards galvanizing, we think it scarcely judicious to trust entirely to it for protection against oxidation, for many instances of imperfect galvanizing have come to our knowledge.

      On the other hand copper becomes brittle, not only when exposed to the air, but also by the passage through it of powerful charges of atmospheric electricity. Franklin used iron, and it is employed in America and on the Continent much more generally than copper, and it is less tempting to the thief.

      Nevertheless, as the cost of erection bears a considerable ratio to the cost of the rod itself, and as iron possesses the disadvantages above stated, we think that in all ordinary cases a copper rod will in the end prove the cheapest, as it will certainly be the most durable.

      SIZE OF ROD.—This is perhaps the most difficult subject which has to be