Methods in Psychological Research. Annabel Ness Evans

find evidence to support our theory, but a theory may only approximate the truth. We are interested in discovering the limits of a theory. Where does the theory break down and not account for our findings? That is, what motivates us to alter a theory or construct a new theory? Often, research involves pitting two theories against one another, each making a different prediction of outcomes. Science moves ahead when we test our theories, and that requires predictions that are falsifiable.

      Q6: Is a research hypothesis just a guess of how things will turn out?

      A6: A research hypothesis is not just a guess; it is an educated guess. The distinction is important because a hypothesis is a prediction based on a theory, which in turn is based on empirical research. It is a guess based on the scientific literature.

      Q7: Which is better, quantitative or qualitative research?

      A7: We think the best answer to this is that it is not a contest. Our bias is toward quantitative methods, but we see more and more qualitative research being published. Each approach has its place.

      Q8: I’m still not clear on the cohort effect. Can you give another example?

      A8: The cohort effect is a problem where age differences are confounded with history. For example, suppose you wanted to look at age differences in people’s view of war. You may find that older people have very different views from younger people. This may be an age effect, but it may also reflect the fact that older people have survived World War II or other conflicts and that may have shaped their views. The difference may be the shared experience of the cohort and not an age effect.

      Q9: Is it OK to select a research topic based on something you saw on TV?

      A9: Absolutely! The most important factor in selecting a research topic is your interest. Researchers are usually motivated by a genuine interest in the topic. Of course, you need to read the scientific literature to get a better understanding of what has been done in the area and what is known about the topic. We provide more information on selecting a research topic in the next chapter.

      Chapter Exercises

      1 For each of the following statements, indicate the likely source of the belief:Teenagers are hormonally challenged.Because all little boys like to play rough, my boy will like to play rough.Overexposure to sunlight causes skin cancer.The sun sets in the west.Men never ask for directions.

      2 List and briefly describe the key elements of critical thinking.

      3 For each of the following questions, identify the goal of the research (i.e., description, explanation, prediction, or control):What are violent criminals like?Is there a connection between children’s diet and their school performance?Are violent criminals more likely than nonviolent criminals to have been abused as children?Can we develop programs to reduce the likelihood of criminal behavior in victims of child abuse?

      4 List and briefly describe each tenet of science. Also include why these tenets are important.

      5 List five questions that cannot be answered by science. For each question, discuss whether science ever could provide an answer and, if so, what would be needed.

      6 Briefly, what is the difference between a theory and a hypothesis? Can you provide an example of each?

      7 Are the following best described as descriptive or explanatory research questions? Why do you think so?What gambling strategies do men use?Is parenting style linked to self-esteem in adolescent children?

      8 Are the following best described as qualitative or quantitative research questions? Why do you think so?What are the major themes of the dreams of clinically depressed individuals?Do clinically depressed people exhibit more negative self-talk than nondepressed people do?

      9 Are the following best described as basic or applied research questions? Why do you think so?What learning styles do first-year psychology students use?Which learning style typically used by first-year psychology students is the most effective in performance outcomes?

      10 Are the following best described as longitudinal or cross-sectional research questions? Why do you think so?Do people become more tolerant as they age?Are young people more tolerant than middle-aged people?

      11 List one advantage of field research over laboratory research. List one advantage of laboratory research over field research.

      Chapter Projects

      1 Peruse the letters to the editor of your local newspaper. Identify a letter that describes a belief that you suspect is based on one of the sources of beliefs discussed in this chapter. Why do you think this is the case?

      2 Obtain a copy of a popular magazine. Find an article of your choice that is based on opinion. Identify the sources of belief used by the author. Do you think the writer was a critical thinker? Explain your answer.

      3 Select a major psychological theory. Generate three testable hypotheses.

      4 Read a research paper in a scientific journal. Generate a testable hypothesis from the research.

      5 In our introductory psychology classes, we often do the following demonstration: We ask for eight or so volunteers. Each student is given a coin. We turn our back to the students and instruct them to clench the fist holding the coin and place the fist next to their head. We then ask them to try sending thoughts to us about which hand is holding the coin. We hem and haw for a while. We then tell the students to drop the hand and hold out both fists in front of them. We quickly turn around and identify which hand is the one holding the coin. We are always accurate. The students are required to generate a scientific hypothesis for our ability to do this. Use the steps of the scientific method to plan a way to test your hypothesis. Try to find more than one hypothesis that could explain our “magical” ability, and identify how you could test each.

      Ancillaries

      SAGE edge provides a personalized approach to help students accomplish their coursework goals in an easy-to-use learning environment. The site includes flashcards for key term practice, learning objectives to reinforce key materials, along with open access media for concept exploration. Visit the site at https://edge.sagepub.com/rooney4e.

      2 Understanding the Research Literature

      Objectives

      After studying this chapter, students should be able to

       Search the literature using common online databases

       Describe what is contained in each section of a typical research article

       Calculate the typical descriptive statistics found in research articles

       Appraise the complex statistical procedures found in research articles

      You have selected your research topic. Now, you need to discover what research has already been done on the topic. It is time for you to peruse the research literature. You will probably find some research on your topic, but it is unlikely that anyone has done exactly the same study that you have in mind. We often tell our students to think through their topic before going to the literature because it is easier to be creative about your project before you have looked at the other approaches. Indeed, once you have read a few articles in the area, it may be very difficult to think of an original idea!

      Although it is unlikely that a study identical to yours has already been done, reading the literature will give you an idea about the kinds of problems that other researchers have had, and you can assess their solutions to those problems. The literature can provide a historical context for your study by describing what