Synthesis Gas. James G. Speight

steam-carbon reaction. Hence, less heat is lost in the low-temperature methanation step, thereby leading to higher overall process efficiency.

      Hydrogasification is the gasification of feedstock in the presence of an atmosphere of hydrogen under pressure. Thus, not all high heat-content (high-Btu) gasification technologies depend entirely on catalytic methanation and, in fact, a number of gasification processes use hydrogasification, that is, the direct addition of hydrogen to feedstock under pressure to form methane:

      The hydrogen-rich gas for hydrogasification can be manufactured from steam by using the char that leaves the hydrogasifier. Appreciable quantities of methane are formed directly in the primary gasifier and the heat released by methane formation is at a sufficiently high temperature to be used in the steam-carbon reaction to produce hydrogen so that less oxygen is used to produce heat for the steam-carbon reaction. Hence, less heat is lost in the low-temperature methanation step, thereby leading to higher overall process efficiency.

      The hydrogasification reaction is exothermic and is thermodynamically favored at low temperatures (<670°C, <1240^oF), unlike the endothermic both steam gasification and carbon dioxide gasification reactions. However, at low temperatures, the reaction rate is inevitably too slow. Therefore, a high temperature is always required for kinetic reasons, which in turn requires high pressure of hydrogen, which is also preferred from equilibrium considerations. This reaction can be catalyzed by salts such as potassium carbonate (K₂CO₃), nickel chloride (NiCl₂), iron chloride (FeCl₂), and iron sulfate (FeSO₄). However, use of a catalyst in feedstock gasification suffers from difficulty in recovering and reusing the catalyst and the potential for the spent catalyst becoming an environmental issue.

      In a hydrogen atmosphere at elevated pressure, additional yields of methane or other low molecular weight hydrocarbon derivatives can result during the initial feedstock gasification stage from direct hydrogenation of feedstock or semi-char because of active intermediate formed in the feedstock structure after pyrolysis. The direct hydrogenation can also increase the amount of feedstock carbon that is gasified as well as the hydrogenation of gaseous hydrocarbon derivatives, oil, and tar.

The kinetics of the rapid-rate reaction between gaseous hydrogen and the active intermediate depends on hydrogen partial pressure (P_H2). Greatly increased gaseous hydrocarbon derivatives produced during the initial feedstock gasification stage are extremely important in processes to convert feedstock into methane (SNG, synthetic natural gas, substitute natural gas).

       2.5.5.6 Methanation

      Several exothermic reactions may occur simultaneously within a methanation unit. A variety of metals have been used as catalysts for the methanation reaction; the most common, and to some extent the most effective methanation catalysts, appear to be nickel and ruthenium, with nickel being the most widely used (Cusumano et al., 1978):

      Nearly all the commercially available catalysts used for this process are, however, very susceptible to sulfur poisoning and efforts must be taken to remove all hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) before the catalytic reaction starts. It is necessary to reduce the sulfur concentration in the feed gas to less than 0.5 ppm v/v in order to maintain adequate catalyst activity for a long period of time.

      The synthesis gas must be desulfurized before the methanation step since sulfur compounds will rapidly deactivate (poison) the catalysts. A processing issue may arise when the concentration of carbon monoxide is excessive in the stream to be methanated since large amounts of heat must be removed from the system to prevent high temperatures and deactivation of the catalyst by sintering as well as the deposition of carbon. To eliminate this problem, temperatures should be maintained below 400^oC (750^oF).

      The methanation reaction is used to increase the methane content of the product gas, as needed for the production of high-Btu gas.

      Among these, the most dominant chemical reaction leading to methane is the first one. Therefore, if methanation is carried out over a catalyst with a synthesis gas mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, the desired hydrogen-carbon monoxide ratio of the feed synthesis gas is around 3:1. The large amount of water (vapor) produced is removed by condensation and recirculated as process water or steam. During this process, most of the exothermic heat due to the methanation reaction is also recovered through a variety of energy integration processes.

      Whereas all the reactions listed above are quite strongly exothermic except the forward water gas shift reaction, which is mildly exothermic, the heat release depends largely on the amount of carbon monoxide present in the feed synthesis gas. For each 1% v/v carbon monoxide in the feed synthesis gas, an adiabatic reaction will experience a 60°C (108^oF) temperature rise, which may be termed as adiabatic temperature rise.

       2.5.5.7 Catalytic Gasification

      Catalysts are commonly used in the chemical and crude oil industries to increase reaction rates, sometimes making certain previously unachievable products possible (Speight, 2002; Speight, 2014a; Hsu and Robinson, 2017; Speight, 2017). Acids, through donated protons (H⁺), are common reaction catalysts, especially in the organic chemical industries. This it is not surprising that catalysts can be used to enhance the reactions involved in gasification and use of appropriate catalysts not only reduces reaction temperature but also improves the gasification rates.

      In addition, thermodynamic constraints of the gasification process limit the thermal efficiency are not inherent but the result of design decisions based on available technology, as well as the kinetic properties of available catalysts. The latter limits the yield of methane to that obtainable at global equilibrium over carbon in the presence of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The equilibrium composition is shown to be independent of the thermodynamic properties of the char or feedstock. These limitations give non-isothermal two-stage processes significant thermodynamic advantages. The results of the analysis suggest directions for modifying present processes to obtain higher thermal efficiencies, and a two-stage process scheme that would have significant advantages over present technologies and should be applicable to a wide range of catalytic and non-catalytic processes (Shinnar et al., 1982; McKee, 1981).

      Alkali metal salts of weak acids, such as potassium carbonate (K₂CO₃), sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃), potassium sulfide (K₂S), and sodium sulfide (Na₂S) can catalyze the carbon-steam gasification reaction. Catalyst amounts on the order of 10 to 20% w/w K₂CO₃ will lower the temperature required for gasification of bituminous coal from approximately 925°C (1695^oF) to 700°C (1090^oF) and that the catalyst can be introduced to the gasifier impregnated on coal or char.

      Disadvantages of catalytic gasification include increased materials costs for the catalyst itself (often rare metals), as well as diminishing catalyst performance over time. Catalysts can be recycled, but their performance tends to diminish with age or by poisoning. The relative difficulty in reclaiming and recycling the catalyst can also be a disadvantage. For example, the potassium carbonate catalyst can be recovered from spent char with a simple water wash, but some catalysts may not be so accommodating. In addition to age, catalysts can also be diminished by poisoning. On the other hand, many catalysts are sensitive to particular chemical species which bond with the catalyst or alter it in such a way that it no longer functions. Sulfur, for example, can poison several types of catalysts including palladium and platinum.

      2.5.6 Physical Effects

      Depending on the type of feedstock being processed and the analysis of the gas product desired, pressure also plays a role in product