The Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics. Carol A. Chapelle

the computer does not recognize that the test taker has comprehended the input; the scoring algorithm only assigns points for vocabulary (or common synonyms of the vocabulary) found in the input. It is therefore important that test developers who use computers to assess listening recognize the strengths and limitations of this technology.

Current and Future Directions in Assessing Listening

      An increasing number of researchers support listening assessments which include as much contextual information in the input as possible (Gruba, 1999; Buck, 2001; Ockey & Wagner, 2018). Of particular interest to most of these researchers is that the acoustic signal be accompanied by associated visual stimuli, such as a video which shows the speaker.

Studies which have investigated people's use of visual information when taking a listening test have been revealing. The results of these studies suggest that individuals make use of visual information to varying degrees. Ockey (2007) found that with context‐only video, which only establishes the context of the discourse (e.g., shows a woman giving a lecture in a university setting), test takers engaged to vastly different extents, with some reporting a great deal of use of the visuals, others reporting little or no use, and still others indicating that the visuals were distracting them from “listening.” Rhetorical signaling cues (movements or expressions of the speaker) have also been shown to be important in listening comprehension (Dunkel & Davis, 1994). Jung (2006) found that second language learners misinterpreted texts more commonly when rhetorical signaling cues were excluded from the input. Wagner (2010) found that test takers achieved higher scores on video than on audio‐only tests when actors used gestures to help with explanations. Ockey (2007) found that individual test takers report using various types of rhetorical signaling cues, including lip movements, facial gestures, and hand movements.

      Research which has compared test takers' scores on audio‐only assessments with tests that include visual stimuli as well as the audio input have produced mixed results. Some studies have found that including visuals leads to increased scores (Shin, 1998; Sueyoshi & Hardison, 2005; Wagner, 2010), while others have failed to find a difference in scores for the two conditions (Gruba, 1989; Coniam, 2000). A recent study by Batty (2018) may help to explain these contradictory findings. He found that particular question types are impacted in different ways by including visuals. His research indicated that implicit items were made much easier by visuals while explicit items were less affected by including visual stimuli. It may be that studies which had mostly explicit items failed to find a difference between the audio‐only and audio accompanied by visual information.

      Eye‐tracking research has also provided increased understanding of listening processes while test takers attempt to comprehend listening input. Using eye‐tracking technology, Suvorov (2015) considered dwell time (how long eye gaze fixates on a particular visual stimuli) and found that test takers paid more attention to content videos than context videos. Also using dwell time with eye‐tracking technology, Batty (2016) found that test takers spent over 80% of their time observing facial cues when watching videos.

      Researchers increasingly argue that the aim of assessing listening should not necessarily be to attempt to isolate comprehension from other language abilities. These researchers contend that listening is commonly interactive, meaning most listening includes opportunities to ask for clarification and that listeners are typically expected to respond after listening (Douglas, 1997; Ockey & Wagner, 2018). Other research indicates that listening and speaking cannot be separated in interactive discussions among two or more individuals (Ducasse & Brown, 2009; Galaczi, 2014). As a result of these conceptualizations of listening and research findings, test developers have begun to create listen–speak tasks (and other integrated listening items), which require both listening and speaking. They contend that it may not be appropriate or even possible to measure listening as distinct from oral production in an interactive communication context. Such an approach limits concerns about measuring more than “listening” with listening assessments.

      SEE ALSO: Assessment of Integrated Skills; Uses of Language Assessments; Validation of Language Assessments

References

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      2 Batty, A. O. (2016). The impact of visual cues on item response in video‐mediated tests of foreign language listening comprehension (Unpublished doctoral thesis). Lancaster University, England.

      3 Batty, A. O. (2018). Investigating the impact of nonverbal communication cues on listening items. In G. J. Ockey & E. Wagner, Assessing L2 listening: Moving towards authenticity (pp. 161–85). Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins.

      4 Brindley, G., & Slatyer, H. (2002). Exploring task difficulty in ESL listening assessment. Language Testing, 19(4), 369–94.

      5 Buck, G. (2001). Assessing listening. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

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      23 Koyama,