The Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics. Carol A. Chapelle

in designing and implementing assessment practices. Teachers assess and respond to student performance, manage assessment information that has been collected, use the information to respond to students' learning needs, and communicate their findings to stakeholders. These activities are often embedded within a multistage assessment cycle. For example, Davison and Leung (2009) describe teacher‐based assessment in a framework consisting of multiple steps: (a) plan assessment, (b) collect information about students' learning, (c) make professional judgments, and (d) provide appropriate feedback or advice.

Assessment as Learning

      Recently, assessment as learning has joined the dichotomy of assessment approaches to make it a trichotomy. In this approach, students take center stage as agents of their own learning and are the heart of the teaching–learning cycle. In assessment as learning, students are expected to step up to new levels of involvement through activities such as self and peer assessment (Black & Wiliam, 1998; Colby‐Kelly & Turner, 2007). With teachers as their guides and facilitators, through gradual release of responsibility, students take on the role of independent, self‐regulated learners as part of their development (Berkowitz, Bier, & McCauley, 2016).

      Assessment as learning is descriptive of a student‐centered approach where students are invited to and guided in becoming autonomous thinkers and learners (Earl, 2013; Gottlieb, 2016). Like any effective assessment approach, student‐centered assessment articulates developmentally appropriate, yet challenging, learning targets, provides feedback on how to deepen teaching and learning, is valid and reliable for its given purpose (and audience), and the data that are generated are fair and useful (McMillan, 2011). There are several additional defining qualities that distinguish student‐centered assessment from the other approaches; they:

       allow for individualization of performance;

       focus on student learning and growth;

       motivate students to do their best;

       encourage students to actively engage in pursuing learning;

       are informative to a variety of audiences. (Andrade, Huff, & Brooke, 2012)

Assessment as learning places students at the forefront of the process. In one instance, teachers might involve students in the assessment design process by co‐constructing scoring guides with class‐generated criteria; then students apply the rubrics to assess their own or peers' performances. In another, learners routinely reflect on their language development and learning in journals and learning logs that document their experiences and create portfolios of their evidence of language use and learning.

      In assessment as learning student voice is honored in classroom decision making, from selecting topics to pursue for learning from designated themes, crafting original projects or work products, and evaluating their performance against agreed upon criteria for success. Having students critically reflect on their own work by matching their performance against preset criteria where they have had input validates their thinking and learning. Other benefits of student engagement in self‐assessment include

       having a venue for students to convey their depth of understanding,

       encouraging students to take responsibility for their own learning,

       honoring student voice in the assessment process,

       recognizing students as a valued data source in making classroom decisions,

       fostering a shared set of expectations between teachers and students,

       helping students set realistic language and learning goals,

       promoting students to set realistic goals based on their accomplishments

       prompting students to analyze the quality of their work. (Gottlieb, 2016)

      Assessment as learning, viewed from an assets‐based perspective, is personalized for each student's individual strengths. Students can use self and peer assessment to gather and reflect on information about specific language performances as well as to generate a picture of their language development over time. Assessment as learning can also guide students in cultivating metacognitive, metalinguistic, and metacultural awareness of their language development that helps facilitate the crafting of individual learning goals. Additionally, multilingual learners can analyze how they choose to use their languages, the connections between their languages, the purposes for communicating, the embedded cultural nuances, and the audiences involved. Ultimately, learners can become instructional resources for one another and can be activated to be owners of their own learning (Wiliam & Leahy, 2015).

The Role of Standards in Classroom Assessment

      Since 1989, educational programs in the USA have witnessed the emergence and implementation of standards‐based education initiatives that identify the content for instruction, target learning outcomes, and specify expected learner achievement in terms of standards‐related criteria as part of system‐wide efforts. This phenomenon has made an impact on language classrooms worldwide (Stoynoff & Chapelle, 2005) through major initiatives including the Common European Framework of Reference (Council of Europe, 2001) and the continuing expansion of English Language Standards such as those in Australia, the USA, and, most recently, China. In addition, in the USA, there are specific English as a New Language Standards for elementary and secondary teachers who seek certification in that area (National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, 2010).

Despite the challenges, student standards provide the anchor and coherence across levels of implementation in educational assessment systems and have become integrated into every aspect of educational life. As Shephard, Penuel, and Davidson (2017) suggest, large‐scale accountability tests should not be the primary driver of educational reform; rather, change should begin with local decisions about curriculum and instructional practices, informed by classroom‐centered assessment that is grounded in a model of learning that is consistent with evidence from research about language learning and development, motivation, identity formation, and equity‐focused instruction.

Conclusion

      Two critical stakeholder groups, students and teachers, are playing crucial roles in translating new ideas for assessment into effective classroom practices. With students at the forefront, it is not surprising that teachers struggle with the competing demands of being responsible for incorporating classroom assessment into instruction while also preparing students for external high‐stakes tests required for accountability. Teachers are expected to adapt emerging theories and techniques in assessment to their classrooms and to scaffold learning opportunities according to their multilingual learners' language development. Although teachers are essential to this process of adapting assessment approaches to local instructional contexts, teachers do not necessarily have the assessment literacy to take on this role.

      Students are being asked to take on more responsibility for their own learning through self and peer assessment and are increasingly contributing to classroom decision making. While classroom assessment offers the promise of enhanced learning opportunities, additional research is needed to describe these classroom practices and the changing student–teacher relationships. These concerns notwithstanding, emerging perspectives on the dynamic interplay between teaching and learning that is mediated through assessment recognize the inherent value in classroom assessment and the information it yields. Through a participatory and interactive assessment process, teachers and students can both become empowered in promoting meaningful assessment practices as part of language development within content learning in the classroom.

      SEE ALSO: Assessment of Integrated Skills; Task‐Based Language Assessment; Uses of Language Assessments

References

      1 Andrade, H., Huff, K., & Brooke, G. (2012). Assessing learning. Students