Soulful Creatures. Edward Bleiberg

      From Saqqara, Egypt

      New Kingdom, Dynasty 18, reign of Thutmose III to Thutmose IV,

      circa 1479–1400 b.c.e.

      Sandstone, paint

      14 × 3 3⁄8 × 8 7⁄8 in. (35.6 × 8.5 × 22.5 cm)

      Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 37.1749E

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      8. Cat Mummy

      The first votive animal mummies appear in the archaeological record during the Third Intermediate Period. This mummy of a cat could date as early as that period, according to carbon-14 dating.

      From Egypt

      Carbon-14 dated to 750–400 b.c.e.

      Third Intermediate Period or later, Dynasty 22 to Dynasty 27, 1075–404 b.c.e.

      Animal remains, linen

      4 3⁄4 × 23 13⁄16 × 6 1⁄4 in. (12.1 × 60.5 × 14 cm)

      Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 37.1988E

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      9. Figure of Pataikos

      Animal cults and animal mummies became increasingly important in the Late Period. Here, the god Pataikos wears a scarab beetle on his head, supports two human-headed birds on his shoulders, holds a snake in each hand, and stands atop crocodiles.

      From Egypt

      Late Period to Ptolemaic Period, Dynasty 26 or later, 664–30 b.c.e.

      Faience, glazed

      2 15⁄16 × 1 11⁄16 × 1 in. (7.5 × 4.3 × 2.5 cm)

      Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 37.949E

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      10. Ibis

      This lithograph of an Egyptian ibis represents the bird sacred to the god Thoth. The Archive of Hor, detailing the workings of the sacred animal necropolis in Saqqara and written in the Ptolemaic Period, refers often to the ibis cemetery.

      From Description de l’Égypte: Histoire naturelle, vol. 1, pl. 7, no. 2.

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      11. Detail of Frieze of Animals in Plant Scroll

      (see figure 56)​

      Representations of animals remained popular in Late Antiquity, a time when many Egyptians had converted to Christianity.

      How the Ancient Egyptians Viewed the Animal World

      Yekaterina Barbash

      How the Ancient Egyptians Viewed the Animal World

      Yekaterina Barbash

      It was his Majesty that did this in accordance with ancient writings.

       Inscription of Amenhotep III {1}

      History reveals the ancient Egyptians’ inclination to follow the traditions of their predecessors. Royal inscriptions, such as the one just above, frequently express the pharaohs’ veneration for the past, and their desire to preserve and enhance it. This may be the reason behind the often-noted lack of change in Egyptian civilization for virtually three millennia.

      Nonetheless, the Late Period of Egyptian history did witness a significant change—a great surge of animal cults and the mummification of animals. The surge is often explained by scholars as a novel innovation, detached from earlier Egyptian culture or religion. In spite of such assertions, however, animals had remained enduring, essential symbols of nature, the domestic sphere, and the supernatural throughout the long history of Egypt. The Egyptians’ determination to continue and advance the traditions of their predecessors suggests that the sudden rise in popularity of animal cults in the Late Period may in fact have grown out of earlier practices and beliefs concerning the animal world.

      With that possibility in mind, let us examine the prevailing views of animals in traditional pharaonic culture in more detail, and see what kinds of longstanding beliefs may have prepared the way for the later rise of animal mummification.

      Beliefs about Individual Species

      Animals were believed to have been created at the same time as humans. And after their death, animals, like deceased humans, were referred to as “Osiris,” enjoying a semi-divine status.

      In the earthly realm, Egyptians saw animals as an integral part of their environment: fish were abundant in the life-giving waters of the Nile; gazelles, lions, and scorpions roamed the desert’s edges; birds of prey flew overhead (figure 12) , and waterfowl chirped in the marshes. Naturally, many animals performed roles familiar to modern Western societies: they were hunted, consumed, bred, or kept as pets. Domesticated goats, sheep, and cattle were used in farming and as a source of food. In addition to providing companionship, cats helped keep vermin away, and dogs assisted in hunting.

The Egyptians keenly observed local creatures in their habitats, and quickly gained an appreciation for the diversity of animals and the specific qualities of each species. Many held a deep significance, being honored for their strength, power, speed, fertility, and other discernible features. Because attributes such as these manifested more strongly in animals than in humanity, they were regarded as evidence of an animal’s link to divinity, possessing qualities of the deity’s character. As a result, some species came to represent specific deities or symbolize particular forces of nature. For example, the aggressive, uncontrollable lioness could embody the violent goddess Sakhmet, and a crocodile could personify the annual inundation. Wild animals that inhabited the threatening desert or the perilous parts of the Nile valley symbolized the dangers associated with these locations (figure 13) . Gazelles and scorpions likely represented the desert. The Nile and its surrounding marshes were characterized by both beneficial and potentially destructive animals like fish, turtles, crocodiles, and hippos. These were seen as symbols of the chaotic abyss known as Nun—the fertile, watery state of the universe before creation.

      The profound complexity of animal nature is reflected in Egyptian mythology, supplying many creatures with dual, often opposing, roles that illuminate the sacred and the mundane, the benevolent and the dangerous. Thus, cattle were an everyday source of beef and milk, but a bull with certain markings became a “divinity.” In addition, virtually every animal was recognized to have both benign and malicious aspects. For example, the hippopotamus’s preferred Nile habitat associated it with the life-giving waters of the inundation, yet its aggressiveness when with young epitomized danger and evil. Because of this, the female hippo became a strong symbol of fertility as the goddess Taweret, who protected mothers and newborn babies, while the animal’s hazardous aspect was turned against the dangers of the Netherworld, protecting the reborn deceased in Middle Kingdom tombs (figure 14).

With their varied qualities, some animals represented more than one god. For instance, the falcon symbolized Egyptian kingship, but was also a manifestation of the sun god (figure 15). A falcon’s soaring flight and keen eyesight embodied essential aspects of the god Horus, who often appears as this bird of prey. In another example, the venomous bite of the cobra associated it with the sun god’s arch-enemy, the serpent Apep, and at the same time allowed it to be a powerful protector of the king and the deceased as the uraeus, a form seen on royal headgear (figure 16).

      Animal Imagery

      As