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and common diseases, including cancer, the autoimmune diseases, multiple sclerosis, and mental illnesses, such as schizophrenia. Indeed, for me the journey also has an additional personal interest, one that began with a more conventional, if harrowing, interest in the nature of plagues, but which, thanks to the inspiration and assistance of informed colleagues, led me to follow new lines of scientific investigation and then to propose some relevant ideas of my own. I hope you will enjoy the vignettes about how this happened and that you will find the new ideas stimulating in themselves as well as helpful to understanding. Welcome then to an exciting odyssey, one you may find exotic, even a little scary at times, but at journey’s end I believe that you will be thrilled, and perhaps even a little awed, by the powerful forces that made us, and that are still actively working within us, as we continue to evolve as a species.

1

       An Enigma from the World of Plagues

      A man can learn wisdom even from a foe.

      ARISTOPHANES¹

      Elysia chlorotica is a beautiful leaf-shaped sea slug that inhabits the salt marshes of the eastern seaboard of the United States, from Nova Scotia in the far north to the warmer waters of coastal Florida in the far south. As the name implies, it is a semi-transparent emerald-green colour and it swims with elegant undulations of its gold-hemmed skirts, which, in biological fact, are the frilly extensions of its slug-style foot. The colour also signals a mystery, for Elysia is one of the “plant-animals”, aptly named by the English botanist, Frederick Keeble, at the turn of the nineteenth century – creatures that really do embody the living features of plants and animals.² Yet Elysia ’s mystery lies deeper still, for in this exotic and beautiful creature we encounter a more profound enigma, one that is both terrible and enlightening. To appreciate the mystery, we need to visit Elysia in its coastal habitat and examine its very curious life cycle.

      Life for the hermaphroditic slug begins as the first warmth of spring rouses it from the torpor of winter. Only now will it lay its egg masses into the brackish water, where, a week or so later, they hatch out as larvae. The larvae spend the next few weeks swimming here and there in the planktonic layers of the coastal marshes, all the while searching for the green filaments of a single species of seaweed, the alga Vaucheria litorea, to which they home and firmly attach. Having found the right alga, they complete their metamorphosis to tiny slugs, when they immediately begin to feed, rasping through the algal walls and sucking out the contents of its cells. Vaucheria is a green alga, which, like the green leaves of trees, is packed with tiny bun-shaped organelles, known as chloroplasts, which capture the bountiful energy of sunlight. This process, known as photosynthesis, is fundamental to the cycles of life, enabling plants to convert sunlight into chemical energy that can be stored, and further shared, by the animals that feed on plants. In essence, all of the familiar life forms we see around us depend on photosynthesis, without which our world would be a very different place. There would be no oxygen in the atmosphere, no trees or flowering plants, no fish to swim in the oceans, and no birds, mammals or people.

      Photosynthesis began perhaps as long ago as 3 billion years, when some early bacteria, known as cyanobacteria from their blue-green colour, evolved on our exceedingly young, and volatile, planet. A good deal later, through the evolutionary process known as symbiosis, these pioneering photosynthetic microbes were incorporated into early nucleated life forms, formerly known as protozoa but today called protists, which became the forerunners of the green algae and plants. But the cyanobacterial forerunners never went away. They still thrive in the planktonic regions of the oceans, and their ancestral forms also survive, though somewhat whittled down in their genomes, within the tissues of algae and plants as the tiny cellular inclusions known as chloroplasts. All of Elysia ’s rasping and sucking are directed at these chloroplasts, which it somehow separates out from the other contents of the algal cells, before secreting them away into special cells lining its gut. Soon the gut expands, branching out into various tiny channels all over the body of the growing slug, so that the precious chloroplasts end up in a confluent layer immediately beneath its skin. Thus replete, the slug abandons its mouth to become exclusively solar-powered for the remainder of its life, deriving all of the energy it needs from the algal chloroplasts, which, like a myriad fairy lights within its leaf-shaped body, have switched on the illumination and turned it green.

      However, we are far from done with the Elysian mystery. The ingested chloroplasts must now continue to gather the energy of sunlight throughout the slug’s life, and this in turn would normally rely on a continuous supply of proteins, which would be coded by the algal nucleus. How then, since the chloroplasts are no longer connected to the algal nucleus, do they continue to survive and function throughout the nine months of the slug’s day-to-day life cycle?

      In fact, we now know that, at some time during the previous evolution of Elysia chlorotica, key genes have been transferred from the nucleus of the alga to the nucleus of the slug.³ Much remains to be discovered about this natural genetic engineering, but there is gathering evidence that it is made possible by viruses that inhabit the slug’s nucleus and tissues. One very interesting discovery about these viruses is that they possess a special chemical, the enzyme known as reverse transcriptase, which usually tells us that we are dealing with a retrovirus. I shall explain a good deal more about these curious organisms, the retroviruses, in subsequent chapters, but let it suffice for the present to know that this enzyme, reverse transcriptase, enables a retrovirus to invade the nucleus. Exactly how such viruses might have made possible the union of such disparate kingdoms as the plants and animals within the sea slug is not presently known. Indeed, precious little is really known about these viruses, which appear rather ancient in the lineages of retroviruses, though they are seen to assemble, on occasion, in the nuclei of the slug’s cells, and from there to make their way as seemingly harmless visitors in the various spaces and compartments of the internal organs and tissues, including, it would appear, the captured chloroplasts. However, there is a final twist to the tale.

      At the end of the slug’s life cycle, when spring is stirring the torpid animals back into life, and soon after the eggs for the future generation have been laid, the adult slugs begin to sicken and die. All of a sudden the viruses that previously appeared innocuous now teem and swarm throughout its tissues and organs. This is no chance observation since viruses are found to be multiplying in every dying slug, and virulent pathological changes throughout the tissues would point to an aggressive viral attack.⁴ These viruses are not invaders coming in out of the oceans since exactly the same pattern is seen in slugs that have been maintained in aquaria, in artificial sea water. It is hard to draw any conclusion other than that this attack is brought about by the very retroviruses that appear to inhabit the slug’s own genetic make-up, those same enigmatic viruses that enabled the genetic transfer of the chloroplast genes from the alga, and made possible the solar-powered life cycle. If so, we appear to be witnessing a programmed annihilation of the entire adult population, as if the viruses that had previously enabled the slug’s somewhat idyllic life cycle had now switched behaviour and were acting out some more brutal pattern of programming, culling the now-redundant adults after they had laid the eggs for the start of a new generation.

      If the circumstantial evidence is indeed correct, we are looking at an illuminating example of a powerful evolutionary mechanism known as “aggressive symbiosis”. A chance discovery amid perilous circumstances led to my proposing this concept many years ago – though I little realised back then that it would play such a major role in the future direction of my professional life.

      On Monday 25 July 1994, I happened to be interviewing Terry Yates, then Professor of Mammals at the University of New Mexico. He was explaining to me how he came to be linked with a newly emergent plague that had broken out in New Mexico in May of the previous year. This all-American plague was still killing one in two of the people it infected in the surrounding towns and countryside as Yates showed me round the cavernous atrium of the New Mexico Museum of Southwestern Biology, its walls decorated with the splendidly horned heads of Alaskan rams and African antelopes, and its floor space crammed with specimen