Popular Lectures on Zoonomia. Garnett Thomas

stages, one through the lungs, which may be called the pulmonary, or lesser circle, and the other through all parts of the body, which may be termed the aortal, or greater circle.

      That the blood circulates in this manner, is evident, from the valves placed at the origin of the arteries, and in the large branches of the veins, which prevent the return of the blood to the heart, in any other manner than that I have described. This is likewise evident, in the common operation of blood letting: when the arm is tied, the vein swells below the ligature, instead of above, and we do not make the opening above the ligature, or on the side next the heart. If the vein were opened above the ligature, it would not bleed. For it only swells next the hand, which shows that the blood does not flow into the vein downwards from the heart, but upwards from the hand.

      If the ligature be too tight, the blood will not flow through the opening in the vein. The reason of this, is, that the artery is compressed, in this case, as well as the vein; and as the veins derive their blood from the arteries, it follows that if the blood's motion be obstructed in the latter, none can flow from them into the former: when we wish to open an artery, the orifice must be made above the ligature.

      Another proof of the circulation being performed in this manner, is derived from microscopic observations, on the transparent parts of animals, in which the blood can be seen to move towards the extremities, along the arteries, and return by the veins.

      The blood, however, does not flow out of the heart into the arteries in a continued stream, but by jets, or pulses; when the ventricles are filled with blood from the auricles, this blood stimulates them, and thereby causes them to contract; by such contraction, they force the blood, which they contain, into the arteries; this contraction is called the systole of the heart. As soon as they have finished their contraction, they relax, till they are again filled with blood from the auricles, and this state of relaxation of the heart, is called the diastole.

      This causes the pulsation or beating of the heart. The arteries must, of course, have a similar pulsation, the blood being driven into them only by starts; and accordingly we find it in the artery of the wrist; this beating we call the pulse; the like may also be observed in the arteries of the temples, and other parts of the body. The veins, however, have no pulsation, for the blood flowing on, in an uninterrupted course, from smaller tubes to wider, its pulse becomes entirely destroyed.

      The different cavities of the heart do not contract at the same time; but the two auricles contract together, the ventricles being at that time in a state of relaxation; these ventricles then contract together, while the auricles become relaxed.

      Both the arteries and veins may be compared to a tree, whose trunk is divided into large branches; these are subdivided into smaller, the smaller again into others still smaller; and we may observe, likewise, that the sum of the capacities of the branches, which arise from any trunk, is always greater than the capacity of the trunk.

      The minutest branches of the arteries, being reflected, become veins, or else they enter veins that are already formed, by anastomosis, as it is called; the small veins continually receiving others, become, like a river, gradually larger, till they form the venae cavae, which conduct the blood to the heart.

      Anatomical injections prove, that the last branches of the arteries terminate in the beginning of veins; but it is the opinion of many celebrated physiologists, that the arteries carry the blood to the different parts of the body to nourish them, and that the veins commence by open mouths, which absorb or suck up what is superfluous, and return it back to the heart.

      From what has been said, it must be evident that there is a considerable resemblance between the circulation of the blood in the animal body, and the circulation of the aqueous fluid on the surface of the globe. In the latter case the water is raised from the ocean, by the heat of the sun, and poured down upon the dry land, in minute drops, for the nourishment and economy of its different parts. What is superfluous is collected into little rills; these meeting with others, form brooks; the union of which produce rivers, that conduct the water to its original source, from which it is again circulated.

      In the same manner, the blood is sent by the heart to different parts of the body, for the nourishment and economy of its different parts; what is superfluous is brought back by veins, which, continually uniting, form those large trunks, which convey the vital fluid to the heart.

      The blood does not circulate, however, in the manner which I have mentioned, in all parts of the body; for that which is carried by arteries to the viscera, serving for digestion, such as the stomach, bowels, mesentery, omentum, and spleen, is collected by small veins which unite into a large trunk called the vena portarum; this vein enters the liver, and is subdivided in it like an artery, distributing through the liver a great quantity of blood, from which the bile is secreted: and, having served this purpose, the blood is collected by small veins; these unite and form the hepatic vein, which pours the blood into the vena cava, to be conducted to the heart.

      The reason of this deviation, is probably, to diminish the velocity of the blood in the liver, for the secretion of the bile; which could not have been effected by means of an artery.

      The force which impels the blood, is, first, the contraction of the heart, which propels the blood into the arteries with great velocity; but this is not the only force concerned in keeping up the circulation; this is evident, from the diminished heat, and weakened pulse, in a paralytic limb, which ought not to take place, if the blood were propelled merely by the action of the heart.

      The arteries are possessed of an elastic and muscular power, by means of which they contract when they are distended or stimulated. It is however by the muscular power alone, that they assist in propelling the blood; for the elasticity of their coats can serve no other purpose than preserving the mean diameter of the vessel. If we suppose the arteries to be dilated by the blood, poured into them by the heart, they will, by their contraction, as elastic tubes, undoubtedly propel the blood: but supposing them to be perfectly elastic, the force of the heart will be just as much diminished in dilating them as the force of the blood is increased by their contraction. We are not however acquainted with any substance perfectly elastic, or which restores itself with a force equal to that with which it was distended: hence the elastic power of the arteries will subtract from, instead of adding to, the power of the heart. It is evident, therefore, that it must be by the muscular power of the arteries, which causes them to contract like the heart, that they propel the blood.

      That such is the case, appears from the muscular structure of the arteries observed by anatomists; as also from the effects of mechanical irritation of their coats, which causes them to contract; this is likewise evident from the inflammation produced by the application of stimulating substances to particular parts; for instance, cantharides and mustard. It appears likewise, from the secretion in some parts being preternaturally increased, while the motion of the general mass of the blood continues unaltered.

      The contraction of the arteries always propels the blood towards the extreme parts of the body: this must necessarily happen, because the valves at the origin of the arteries prevent its return to the heart, it must therefore move in the direction in which it finds least resistance.

      If it were not for this muscular power of the arteries, the force of the heart would not alone be able to propel the blood to the extreme parts of the body, and overcome the different kinds of resistance it has to encounter. Among the causes that lessen the velocity of the blood, may be mentioned the increasing area of the artery; for it was before observed, that the sum of the cavities of the branches from any trunk exceeded the cavity of the trunk: and from the principles of hydrostatics, the velocities of fluids, propelled by the same force, in tubes of different diameters, are inversely as the squares of the diameters, so that in a tube of double the diameter, the velocity will only be one fourth; in one of the triple, only one ninth: and since the arteries may be looked upon as conical, it is evident that the velocity of the blood must be diminished from this cause.

      The curvilinear course of the arteries likewise gives considerable resistance; for at every bending the blood loses part of its momentum against the sides; and this loss is evidently proportioned to the magnitude of the angle, at which the branch goes off. Convolutions are frequently made, in order to diminish the force of the blood in particular organs; this is especially the case with the carotid artery before it enters the brain.

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