Storytelling for Media. Joachim Friedmann

Chief Cochise. He gains the respect and friendship of the natives and finally marries Sonseeahray, the shaman of the tribe. When she is shot by a white man, however, Jeffords returns to his own settler world. The crossing of the border is reversed, probably also in consideration of the taste of the American public of that time. Anna Jürgen’s novel Blauvogel (Blue Bird), which was published in the GDR in the same year, describes a different movement. Nine-year-old Georg Ruster, a son of white settlers, is kidnapped and adopted by indigenous people. After having great difficulty getting used to life with the natives, he finally becomes a respected and beloved member of the tribe, taking his new Native name, Bluebird. When, under pressure from the white military, he is forced to leave the tribe and return to his old family, he finds himself alienated from his previous life and flees back to the indigenous tribe. His crossing of the border is therefore final. Stories that describe a constant crossing of borders and the associated transformation are also called revolutionary in narrative science. Texts that describe a failed border crossing such as in Death in Venice or a reversed border crossing as in Broken Arrow often confirm the status quo of a given order and are called restitutive.

	EXERCISE:
	Try to describe the oppositional concepts and spaces in your favorite narratives. Which borders are crossed, which semantical concepts are represented?

      3.2 Other Options for Spatial Semantization

      Lotman’s model is convincing in the practical design of narratives through its clear, comprehensible logic and simplicity. But at the same time, it can be overly reductive. For example, one has to ask whether there are always only two spaces represented in narrative reality. Authors from migrant cultures such as Hanif Kureishi or Zadie Smith thus consciously introduce further (intermediate) spaces, “contact zones” and “third spaces,” into postcolonial literature. Lotman, too, expanded his approach and introduced the concept of sub-semiospheres, through which, in turn, new spaces of meaning can be opened up.

      In this respect, it must be examined to what extent Lotman’s considerations can also be meaningfully extended in practical application. It can be shown by some examples that a semantization of space cannot only be described in a topographical or topological dimension. If one examines the spatial design in The Lord of the Rings, for example, color semantization catches the eye. Spaces in which green dominates, such as The Shire or Lothlórien, have positive connotations, while in Mordor, the realm of evil, black dominates. In the Elvish language Sindarin, “Mordor” literally means “Black Land.” One could even interpret a phonetic-semantic design in the setting names. Thus, the vowels “o” and “u” obviously stand for the evil, black side. The refuge of the evil adversary Sauron, after his first defeat, is called Dol Guldur. Then he conquers the kingdom of Mordor, whose largest region is called Núrn and whose highest mountain rises on the Gorgoroth plateau. After the city of Minas Ithil is conquered by the evil Nazgûl, it is renamed Minas Morgul.

      It must also be questioned whether the existence of two semantic spaces and the associated topographical boundary is in fact a fundamental condition for the subject of a narrative text. Even in the film, which is predestined for spatial depictions due to its visual level of reception, this is apparently not a compelling condition when one considers the genre of intimate theatre, e.g., Lumet’s 12 Angry Men, whose plot unfolds in a single jury room. This space is highly semanticized by the experiential knowledge of the recipient. The recipients know that justice is determined and administered in this space, that guilt and innocence and – in this concrete example – even life and death are decided here. But the border and the second semantic space are missing. Nevertheless, oppositional relationships can of course also be identified in this narrative, such as guilt vs. innocence, morality vs. law, racism vs. anti-racism, opportunism vs. loyalty to principles, but these are not bound to concrete spaces.

      A similar problem arises when considering games, particularly the so-called “casual games” or games with less elaborate graphics and history. Especially in the early arcade games, there was often only a single game space or setting available, due to the lack of computer capacity at that time, e.g., in games like Pong, Space Invaders, or Asteroids. Since no second space can be constructed here with the corresponding oppositions, no border crossing can take place and semantization in the strict sense of Lotman is not possible. Nevertheless, these games contain narrative elements with the corresponding semantizations despite their simple graphics and limited representational potential.

      Spacewars! is considered by many to be the first computer game ever made. Here the game is shown with original source code running on a PDP-1. Image moral authors: Martin Graetz, Stephen Russell, Wayne Wiitanen, Peter Samson, Dan Edwards, Alan Kotok, Steve Piner, and Robert A. Saunders.

      In one of the very first computer games, Spacewar!, programmed in 1961 by students of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the setting is the “final frontier” – the space beyond earth. This is fitting for the genre, because in all phases of the history of computer games the universe, foreign planets, space stations etc. are constantly recurring locations, be it in Galaga, Doom, or Halo. Space Invaders from 1978 is regarded as the first commercially successful space shooter and triggered the development of a whole series of games that also chose space as their setting. However, the design of the setting of these computer games is still rudimentary – in the case of Space Invaders there is nothing but four blocks behind which the player’s spaceship can seek protection. The setting is supported by other factors, such as the naming of the game and the design of the machine. Its surface is decorated with representations of aliens, rockets, planets, stars etc. to illustrate the science fiction setting of the game. With Phoenix and Galaga, the setting becomes more elaborate and already shows a star-studded galaxy in the background. It is not the richness of detail that is decisive here, but the semantization of the game space through the activation of a narrative script. Media scientist HENRY JENKINS calls this strategy of game design “evocative spaces.” He compares the game designer’s work here with the design of an amusement park, in which the attractions are often based on well-known narrative genres and settings such as the “wild west,” a fairytale environment, or a pirate ship. According to Jenkins, game designers use the same strategy. Because one falls back on the narrative competences of the recipients, the design of the world is often subcomplex and can be carried out in a suggestive or schematic way. In other words, games make targeted use of narrative archetypes or genres in order to semanticize space or integrate the game into a narrative context. The old arcade games, in particular, used this design strategy, since computer technology at that time did not allow sophisticated graphic representation. Thus, in Galaga or Space Invaders, not only does the game space contain rudimentary pixel aliens or spaceships, but also the arcade machine itself is decorated on its surface with aliens, comets, and ring planets to communicate to the recipient that this is a game in a science fiction setting, with the corresponding narrative tropes such as alien invasion, space battles, etc. Similarly, Ghost’n Goblins features ghosts, mythical creatures, knights, and princesses, both on the machine itself and in the game space, to situate the game in the fantasy and fairytale genre and thus activate the corresponding narrative scripts, with oppositional pairs such as everyday world vs. magical world, life vs. death, noble knights vs. dangerous mythical creatures, and beautiful princess vs. ugly monster.

      However, there are other possibilities of semantization in the sense of an evocative space that do not necessarily have to resort to existing narrative genres. The handheld game Candy Crush Saga is one of the most successful casual games in history. The idea of the game isn’t new in itself. It’s a so-called “match three game,” (Juul 92) which is all about combining three game pieces of the same colour or shape. Shariki is the first computer game to use this game mechanic. The game is about exchanging neighbouring orbs on the playing field in their places so that three balls of the same colour are combined horizontally or vertically, whereupon they explode and make room for new balls. The game mechanics of Shariki were often copied, e.g. in Tetris Attack,