Physiology: The Science of the Body. Ernest G. Martin

foods in an especial sense, are richer in these accessories than any other articles of the diet. The discovery of these facts has emphasized the importance of including animal fats in the diet of growing children, milk and eggs particularly. Since milk is also rich in the lime salts which are necessary for bone formation it forms the best single foodstuff for children that there is. When very young children have to be fed on cow’s milk, which differs somewhat in proportion from mother’s milk, it is often found necessary to feed the top milk diluted with water, instead of the whole milk. When this is done, lime water is usually used in part for diluting the milk, instead of all ordinary water. In this way the proportion of lime is brought up enough to insure that the child will get plenty of it.

      In addition to the use of protein as a growth food it has another use which no other kind of foodstuff can share. This is also because protein is the foundation material of living protoplasm. We do not know a great deal about what goes on in living protoplasm to make up what we call the life processes, but we do know that these processes are of a chemical nature, and that in connection with them there is a steady wastage of protein. The protein that thus goes to waste is broken down into simpler chemical compounds which are expelled from the cells. Why this occurs we do not know, but since it does it is evident that unless the wastage is made good the time will presently come when so much protein will have been lost from the protoplasm that it can no longer exist as such and must die. As a matter of fact, one might go on a diet excessively rich in starchy foods and fats and still starve to death if there were no protein present. This use of protein is called cell maintenance to distinguish it from the other special use of protein in cell growth. Evidently, whatever may be missing from the diet, protein must not be left out. Fortunately most of our common foods contain protein. It is especially abundant in lean meat, in dried beans and peas, and in grain. Potatoes and most garden vegetables are deficient in protein, as are almost all common fruits. Bread and meat are our chief stand-bys as furnishers of protein.

      Just as there are vitamines that are important for growth, so are there vitamines that are necessary for cell maintenance. Many years ago Dr. Sylvester Graham made himself prominent by arguing that the outer coats of wheat grains contain something that is needed in the diet, which is removed in the process of manufacturing white flour. He accordingly invented a form of flour, familiar to us all under his name, which includes some of the bran from the outer layers of the wheat. This idea, which originated with Dr. Graham, has since been substantiated, although not precisely as Graham had it. We know that there are necessary accessories to the diet, but we know, also, that they are much more widespread than Graham thought. They occur in so many kinds of foodstuffs that anyone who eats a mixed diet usually gets enough of them for his needs. The ill effects of their lack are most evident when the diet is restricted to a few kinds of food which happen not to contain them. A striking example of bodily injury directly due to the absence of these vitamines from the food is seen among Orientals whose diet is apt to be made up of rice plus small amounts of other substances. Of recent years the natives of Japan and China and the Philippines have suffered much from a disease of the nerves known as beriberi. Investigation has shown that this disease is due to the absence from the diet of needed vitamines, and dates from the time when rice-milling machinery was introduced. The old hand methods of milling rice were so imperfect that much of the hull was left clinging to the grains, but machinery polishes the rice clean of every trace of hull. The hulls of rice contain the accessory that is wanting from the polished grains. Wherever it has been possible to bring about the use of unpolished (brown) rice instead of the usual polished kind, beriberi has disappeared. Or the same result can be secured by adding small amounts of beans to the diet. It is probable, also, that the hulls of most grains, including wheat, contain some of the same, or a similar accessory, so to that extent Dr. Graham was right in emphasizing the importance of adding hulls to the flour. Quite recently it has been shown that raw foods are richer in these accessories than cooked, and that ordinary compressed yeast contains more of them than any other easily obtainable material. Many people are being benefited by taking part or all of a yeast cake daily in a glass of milk.

      For growth, or the making of new protoplasm, and for maintenance, or the repair of protoplasmic wastage, then, we must eat protein-containing foods, also foods containing various kinds of salts, and foods containing the necessary vitamines. All these are to provide required materials; the actual substances built into the protoplasm. There remains the requirement of power, for both growth and maintenance represent chemical activity on the part of the cell, and this activity depends on power just as does any other activity. In saying this we are merely saying over again in different words what was set down at the very beginning of the book as the chief sign of life, namely, the necessity on the part of living cells of continuous power development. The use of food as a source of energy or power has been talked about already, but it is necessary to say something about the different sorts of power development that may go on in cells, and since we shall have to talk about this a good deal, right here is a good place to bring in for the first time a word that has come to be used whenever the matter of the chemical activities of living cells is being mentioned. The word is metabolism; when we speak of cell metabolism we mean the chemical processes that are going on in the cells. Hereafter, instead of saying power development, the word metabolism will be used as meaning practically the same thing.

      First of all, in describing the various kinds of metabolism that cells may show, we have the metabolism of rest. By this we mean the power development that is going on when the cell is doing nothing more than keeping alive; neither growing nor showing any special activity. This is evidently the minimum amount that any cell can show, so it is often referred to as the basic metabolism. We know of at least two things that may change the amount of basic metabolism; the first of these is a change in temperature; when a cell is cold, its basic metabolism is less than when it is warm. There is a very simple chemical reason for this, namely, that chemical processes as a rule go on more slowly the lower the temperature. Since all metabolism consists of chemical processes, this rule applies not only to basic metabolism, but to all other kinds as well, and, as we shall see, explains why the lower animals show such marked differences in behavior in cold and warm weather. The second thing that influences the amount of basic metabolism is the percentage of water in the protoplasm of the cell. Highly organized animals, like ourselves, are destroyed if the cells lose more than a small fraction of their water, but there are many of the lower animals that can be dried until their bodies contain only a very little water and still live. This applies to microscopic forms that live in puddles and similar places; when the puddle dries up the animal dries up too, until all that is left of it is a tiny particle of highly concentrated protoplasm. But this tiny particle preserves all the original cells, or at least enough of them to make a fresh start, and a very sluggish metabolism goes on in each cell. Of course, the advantage of this is that the stored food materials will not be used up as rapidly as they would if metabolism went on at the usual rate, and so there is a better chance that the animal may survive until more water falls or drains into the puddle, or until the particle of dust which the animal has become may be blown by the wind where it will fall into another one. Whenever either of these things happens the protoplasm takes up water again and the former rate of metabolism is resumed. It is only by means of this reduction in rate of metabolism that many kinds of animals are able to persist, for in large parts of the globe there is a period of each year when conditions become so unfavorable that the usual rate of metabolism could not possibly be maintained.

      Next in order to basic metabolism comes the metabolism of growth, by which we mean the energy necessary for the making of new protoplasm. Not a great deal is known about growth metabolism; in fact, about the only reason for believing that it requires any energy at all is that the metabolism of young animals, whenever it has been studied, has been found to be greater in proportion than that of animals that are fully grown. It is hard to account for this, unless the growth process itself, namely, the making of new protoplasm, requires energy. When we think of the extreme complexity of living protoplasm, we can easily believe that its formation involves the expenditure of energy, perhaps in considerable amounts.

      The last kind of power development to be considered is the metabolism of special activity. Most kinds of cells, particularly in highly organized animals, have some special kind of work to do. For example, the muscle cells have the task of making the motions; the gland cells of manufacturing the secretions, and so on. These we speak of as the particular