Towards a Political Education Through Environmental Issues. Melki Slimani

of Agroecology, International Planning Committee for Food Sovereignty, etc.) on the other. These two types of actors mobilize two opposing visions: one that sees agroecology as a set of tools to perfect the technical procedures of modern agriculture, and another that sees it as an alternative which provides tools to transform agricultural policy monocultures (Giraldo and Rosset 2018).

      In Tunisia, environmental struggles re-emerged in the period following the events of 2011. In fact, the context of political change which was triggered has been accompanied by the emergence of environmental social movements in a way that makes it difficult to characterize such movements, even in general terms (Vernin 2017). However, the frankly political imprint of these movements remains salient. It is also noteworthy that the political management of conflicts over state land shows a trend towards institutionalizing this type of mobilization in Tunisia. This institutionalization has taken the form of a project called “Promotion of Organizations and Mechanisms of the Social and Solidarity Economy” (PROMESS). The project, advanced by the Tunisian government in its cooperation with the International Labour Organization (ILO) and funded by the Netherlands, was spread over a four-year period from 2016 to 2019 (Mokadem 2018). The creation of a legal and institutional framework specific to the social and solidarity economy is one of the main axes within this project. A draft law⁴ on the social and solidarity economy was already being finalized by the Ministry of Social Affairs by May 2018.

      Field studies of environmental mobilizations show that these practices are part of an informal⁵ political education through the learning that develops among the actors who take part in it (Seguin 2015). These civic apprenticeships (Biesta 2011) on conflict and the construction of collective agreements through participation and deliberation form an informal educational process of socialization for a democratic citizenship. According to Kluttz and Walter (2018), these mobilizations involve three interconnected levels of informal political learning:

       – the first level, which is microscopic, corresponds to learning that takes place in self-directed situations (individual study of environmental issues, for example), in situations where activists observe and experiment, or in situations where activists participate in conversations during workshops organized by non-governmental organizations;

       – the second level, which is mesoscopic, includes the learning that takes place when activists, in elaborating their strategies to combat an issue, consider their experiences in a broader context that integrates the experiences of other activists;

       – the third level, which is macroscopic, corresponds to the political learning that takes place when activists interact with their allies or opponents (police, government institutions, businesses, etc.) in forming their petitions.

      In non-formal education, Eco-Schools are one of the pioneering schemes (founded in 1994 in Denmark) that have been implemented around EDIs. In several countries⁶ around the world, this initiative has been developed in primary, middle and high schools (eco-schools) and universities (eco-campuses). It consists of learning support on six priority topics (food, biodiversity, waste, water, energy, social support) for the concrete implementation of sustainable development in educational institutions in partnership with the local community and the students’ parents.

      Non-formal education around EDIs is also affected by international educational policies. Historically, the latter shows two successive cycles of “educational institutionalization” taking the form of two recommended mechanisms that have succeeded one another over time: the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (2005–2014) and Education for Sustainable Development Goals.

      In formal education, EDIs are covered by disciplinary curricula. In France, three school and/or academic disciplines deal with these questions: life and earth sciences, which take on the environmental dimension; economics, which takes on the economic dimension; and geography, which takes on the social dimension (Simonneaux 2011). Vergnolle Mainar (2008, 2009) notes that geography and life and earth sciences are the two disciplines that overlap the most with the environmental approach. This author also identifies areas of interdisciplinarity in the school disciplines concerned with the environment, which she differentiates into two groups: disciplines which have a significant overlap with environmental topics (life sciences, earth sciences and geography) and disciplines which are fairly unrelated to environmental topics (physics, chemistry, mathematics, technology, physical education and sport, history, civic education, economic and social sciences, French, philosophy, artistic disciplines and languages). The Tunisian context presents almost the same characteristics when it comes to school disciplines involving environmental issues.

      The two international educational policy cycles mentioned above, as well as the disciplinary curricula, constitute inflections allowing the passage from informal education in ecological mobilizations to non-formal education or to formal education. Moreover, aspects in this educational trilogy can be hybridized as the line between formal, non-formal and informal becomes increasingly blurred (Barthes and Alpe 2018).

Several research programs on the links between the political and content involving EDIs in formal and non-formal education are being implemented around the world. Research in the Americas has focused on the interactions of formal and non-formal environmental education (e.g. for adults) with the dominant neoliberal political and economic context (Hursh et al. 2015; Stahelin et al. 2015). They open up a discussion of pedagogical practices and content that teachers can use to help learners develop forms of environmental citizenship that actively challenge the neoliberal privatization of environmental responsibility (Dimick 2015).

      Other programs follow the French tradition of didactic research: that of the didactics of socially acute questions (SAQs) and that of the didactics of the curriculum of education for sustainable development (ESD). In these two programs, the political is presented according to a double register: strategic and tactical (Lange 2011). Indeed, the work of Lange (2011, 2013, 2015) on the didactics of the ESD curriculum puts forward the political as a strategic purpose of this education on the one hand and as an organizing (tactical) principle of educational situations on the other. This research has enabled proposing an analytical model of the functioning of an educational situation for sustainable development as a social academic practice of democracy. Furthermore, the work of Simonneaux (2013b) and his team (Simonneaux 2011; Bérard et al. 2016) presents the political according to the strategic register of education geared towards scientific citizenship and according to a tactical register as organizers of situations of debate and deliberation on problematic environmental issues. Such scientific citizenship can be the aim of non-formal education for the political (action research aimed at popular education in politics).

      Another program borrows from the Nordic tradition (Håkansson et al. 2017) whereby the political dimension of EDIs is identified in four aspects of the political as:

       – generating inclusion and consensus;

       – containing cognitive and emotional elements;

       – involving power;

       – representing a decision-making process.

The researchers involved in that program aim to transpose the idea of the political dimension practice of teaching and research to educational situations involving EDIs. Indeed, the work of Håkansson et al. (2017) proposes a categorization of these situations according to the political trend running through them. This trend may take the form of “democratic participation”, “political reflection”, “political deliberation” or a “political moment”. More recently, these researchers (Håkansson and Östman 2018) have proposed an analytical model integrating four phases of the “political moment” in these educational situations. The work of Van Poeck and Vandenabeele (2012) and Van Poeck et al. (2014) underline the importance of analyzing the democratic character of educational practices in terms of enriching the discussion on the democratic paradox in environmental education and sustainable development. Subsequently, these researchers set out to develop a method for analyzing “political movement” to study how teachers’ actions facilitate