Wood and Forest. William Noyes

p. 23.

      As in the study of all woods three sections are made, it is well at the outset to understand clearly what these are.

      The sections of a tree made for its study are (Fig. 3):

      (1) Transverse, a plane at right angles to the organic axis.

      (2) Radial, a longitudinal plane, including the organic axis.

      Fig. 3.

A.	B.
A, B, C, D, Transverse Section. B, D, E, F, Radial Section. G, H, I, J, Tangential Section.	A, B, C, Transverse Section. A, B, D, E, Radial Section. B, C, E, F, Tangential Section.

      

      (3) Tangential, a longitudinal plane not including the organic axis.

      If a transverse section of the trunk of a conifer or of a broad-leaved tree is made, it is to be noted that it consists of several distinct parts. See Fig. 4. These, beginning at the outside, are:

       (1) Rind or bark(a) Cortex(b) Bast

       (2) Cambium

       (3) Wood(a) Sap-wood(b) Heart-wood

       (4) Pith.

      Fig. 4. Diagram of Cross-section of Three Year Old Stem of Basswood.

      (1) The rind or bark is made up of two layers, the outer of which, the "cortex," is corky and usually scales or pulls off easily; while the inner one is a fibrous coat called "bast" or "phloem." Together they form a cone, widest, thickest, and roughest at the base and becoming narrower toward the top of the tree. The cortex or outer bark serves to protect the stem of the tree from extremes of heat and cold, from atmospheric changes, and from the browsing of animals. It is made up of a tough water-proof layer of cork which has taken the place of the tender skin or "epidermis" of the twig. Because it is water-proof the outside tissue is cut off from the water supply of the tree, and so dries up and peels off, a mass of dead matter. The cork and the dead stuff together are called the bark. As we shall see later, the cork grows from the inside, being formed in the inner layers of the cortex, the outer layers of dry bark being thus successively cut off.

      The characteristics of the tree bark are due to the positions and kinds of tissue of these new layers of cork. Each tree has its own kind of bark, and the bark of some is so characteristic as to make the tree easily recognizable.

      

      Bark may be classified according to formation and method of separation, as scale bark, which detaches from the tree in plates, as in the willows; membraneous bark, which comes off in ribbons and films, as in the birches; fibrous bark, which is in the form of stiff threads, as in the grape vine; and fissured bark, which breaks up in longitudinal fissures, showing ridges, grooves and broad, angular patches, as in oak, chestnut and locust. The last is the commonest form of bark.

      The bark of certain kinds of trees, as cherry and birch, has peculiar markings which consist of oblong raised spots or marks, especially on the young branches. These are called lenticels (Latin lenticula, freckle), and have two purposes: they admit air to the internal tissues, as it were for breathing, and they also emit water vapor. These lenticels are to be found on all trees, even where the bark is very thick, as old oaks and chestnuts, but in these the lenticels are in the bottoms of the deep cracks. There is a great difference in the inflammability of bark, some, like that of the big trees of California, Fig. 54, p. 208, which is often two feet thick, being practically incombustible, and hence serving to protect the tree; while some bark, as canoe birch, is laden with an oil which burns furiously. It therefore makes admirable kindling for camp fires, even in wet weather.

      Inside the cork is the "phloem" or "bast," which, by the way, gives its name to the bass tree, the inner bark of which is very tough and fibrous and therefore used for mat and rope making. In a living tree, the bast fibers serve to conduct the nourishment which has been made in the leaves down thru the stem to the growing parts.

      (2) The cambium. Inside of the rind and between it and the wood, there is, on living trees, a slimy coat called cambium (Med. Latin, exchange). This is the living, growing part of the stem, familiar to all who have peeled it as the sticky, slimy coat between the bark and the wood of a twig. This is what constitutes the fragrant, mucilaginous inner part of the bark of slippery elm. Cambium is a tissue of young and growing cells, in which the new cells are formed, the inner ones forming the wood and the outer ones the bark.

      Fig. 5. Young Stem, Magnified 18½ Diameters, Showing Primary and Secondary Bundles. By Courtesy of Mrs. Katharine Golden Bitting.

      E, epidermis, the single outside layer of cells.

      C, cortex, the region outside of the bundles.

      HB, hard bast, the black, irregular ring protecting the soft bast.

      SB, soft bast, the light, crescent-shaped parts.

      Ca, cambium, the line between the soft bast and the wood.

      W, wood, segments showing pores.

      MR, medullary rays, lines between the bundles connecting the pith and the cortex.

      MS, medullary sheath, the dark, irregular ring just inside the bundles.

      P, pith, the central mass of cells.

In order to understand the cambium and its function, consider its appearance in a bud, Fig. 5. A cross-section of the bud of a growing stem examined under the microscope, looks like a delicate mesh of thin membrane, filled in with a viscid semi-fluid substance which is called "protoplasm" (Greek, protos, first; plasma, form). These meshes were first called "cells" by Robert Hooke, in 1667, because of their resemblance to the chambers of a honeycomb. The walls of these "cells" are their most prominent feature and, when first studied, were supposed to be the essential part; but later the slimy, colorless substance which filled the cells was found to be the essential part. This slimy substance, called protoplasm, constitutes the primal stuff of all living things. The cell walls themselves are formed from it. These young cells, at the apex of a stem, are all alike, very small, filled with protoplasm, and as yet, unaltered. They form embryonic tissue, i.e. one which will change. One change to which an cell filled with protoplasm is liable is division into two, a new partition wall forming within it. This is the way plant cells increase.

      In young plant cells, the whole cavity of the chamber is filled with protoplasm, but as the cells grow older and larger, the protoplasm develops into different parts, one part forming the cell wall and in many cases leaving cavities within the cell, which become filled with sap. The substance of the cell wall is called cellulose (cotton and flax fibers consist of almost pure cellulose). At first it has no definite structure, but as growth goes on, it may become thickened in layers, or gummy, or hardened into lignin (wood), according to the function to be performed. Where there are a group of similar cells performing the same functions, the group is called a tissue or, if large enough, a tissue system.

      When cells are changed into new forms, or "differentiated," as it is called, they become permanent tissues. These permanent tissues of the tree trunk constitute the various parts which we have noticed, viz., the rind, the pith and the wood.

      The essentially living part of the tree, it should be remembered, is the protoplasm: where there is protoplasm, there is life and growth. In the stems of the