Infectious Disease Management in Animal Shelters. Группа авторов

nail trimming, and ear cleaning. This is more than just a matter of cosmetics or appearance. Many animals enter shelters in urgent need of grooming, especially long‐haired dogs and cats, with heavily matted hair coats and/or overgrown nails, which can be painful and/or associated with skin infections. In some cases, severe matting on extremities can compromise the blood supply and result in dangerous, gangrenous lesions. When animals are held in the shelter for long‐term stays, a system of regular grooming must be implemented to prevent the accumulation of painful mats and overgrown nails. Care must also be taken to keep animals clean and dry. Being housed in soiled, damp, and/or wet environments is not only potentially stressful for animals, but such conditions predispose them to matting, pungent body odor, pyoderma, and pododermatitis, and therefore must be avoided. According to the ASV Guidelines for Standards of Care in Animal Shelters (2010), “Spraying down kennels or cages while animals are inside them is an unacceptable practice.”

      Some animals will require more grooming than others, depending on their type of hair coat and conformation. In addition to supporting a healthy hair coat and skin, regular grooming also provides an excellent opportunity to monitor health and body condition while checking for skin problems and lumps. Also, many animals enjoy contact and attention, and well‐groomed animals are often more attractive to potential adopters.

      2.5.7 Periodontal/Oral Disease Prevention

      Dental or oral health is another component of addressing wellness; it extends far beyond bad breath. Plaque and tartar buildup are known to contribute to serious health concerns ranging from oral pain to chronic, intermittent bacteremia and organ failure. Some animals with dental disease may refuse to eat because of the discomfort and pain. In dogs, periodontal disease is one of the most common health problems, affecting an estimated 80% of canine patients over the age of five years. It is especially common in small breed dogs (Debowes 1998). Periodontal disease is very common in adult cats as well, and some cats also develop resorptive lesions, which are frequently very painful (Reiter 2012).

Stomatitis (inflammation of the mouth) is another painful oral condition that predominantly affects cats, although it is occasionally seen in dogs as well. Importantly, stomatitis may be more commonly seen in cats that are housed intensively such as cats originating from hoarding situations and those housed in large group settings long term (Merck 2016). Affected cats experience wide‐spread oral inflammation around the teeth, which often extends into the back of the mouth (pharynx) and along the sides of the tongue. The exact cause is unknown; however, the vast majority of affected cats are chronic carriers of calicivirus, thus this virus may play a role in this chronic inflammatory process (Harley et al. 2011; Poulet et al. 2000). In a study of cats from large scale hoarding investigations, FCV was the most common viral respiratory pathogen detected, infecting 78% of the cats from the populations studied (Polak et al. 2014).

      In an animal shelter, periodontal and oral disease prevention may be low on the list of priorities for wellness; however, it should be an important consideration for individual wellness care. When painful dental and/or oral disease is present and animals are kept for adoption or long‐term stays, a plan for timely treatment must be implemented. Adopters of animals with dental disease should be advised to seek follow‐up veterinary care as soon as possible.

      In terms of simple and practical means of prevention, the use of products aimed at encouraging canine chewing activity is well recognized to be beneficial by maximizing self‐cleansing and physiological stimulation of salivary flow. Furthermore, chewing is a normal behavior for puppies and dogs, and when dogs are confined, isolated, anxious, or otherwise stressed, they may engage in chewing as a coping strategy. For these reasons, as well as to help maintain oral hygiene, dogs of all ages should be provided with a variety of safe chew toys appropriate for their size and age. For cats, preventive efforts should focus on the reduction of stress and URI since FCV has been implicated as a likely contributing cause of oral inflammation, particularly in housed cats.

      2.5.8 Individual‐Specific Care

      Wellness protocols may also be dictated by the specific needs of individual animals. In some cases, the needs of individuals may be anticipated based on particular physical or behavioral traits, or breed, if known, since many breed predispositions have been well documented. For example, caution must be taken with brachycephalic dogs to ensure they do not experience heat exhaustion, to which they are extremely sensitive given the conformation of their airways. This may affect the selection of holding/housing areas and exercise routines for these individuals. Poor airway conformation also predisposes brachycephalic dogs and cats to more severe URIs than other breeds. For these reasons, care should be taken to house brachycephalic animals in well‐ventilated areas away from sick animals, and they should be prioritized for removal to foster care or rescue. In the author's experience, even intranasal vaccination of these breeds is best avoided because it can result in severe clinical signs of respiratory disease.

      Similarly, certain other breeds require special care in the shelter depending on their medical or behavioral genetic predispositions. The pit bull is another example: Many of these dogs require extra attention regarding housing conditions in a kennel setting so that a propensity to learn or exhibit dog‐dog aggression is not exacerbated through exposure to high levels of arousal and stimulation from other dogs. This type of behavior may be exhibited by other breeds and individual dogs as well and similar precautions should be taken regarding their care and housing.

2.6 Wellness: BehavioralHealth

Just as a primary goal of animal care in the shelter is to maintain the physical health of animals, the behavioral or emotional health of animals likewise deserves careful attention and consideration. Good emotional or mental health implies a state of psychological or behavioral wellbeing. When animals possess good emotional health, they experience an array of positive emotional states (contentment, playfulness, relaxation) and can effectively function, learn, and adapt to everyday life. If faced with a stressful situation, they are able to cope and do not experience significant or prolonged stress, fear, anxiety, or frustration. In short, emotionally healthy animals are content, resilient and enjoy their lives, which should be the goal for any animal residing in a shelter.

      When considering emotional health in the shelter, it must be recognized that animal shelters are not normal or natural environments in which to house cats and dogs. They are meant to serve as temporary housing for animals waiting to be reclaimed, rehomed, or returned to the field, and, in some cases, as temporary housing for animals that will be euthanized. Over the past several years, there has been a growing trend in animal sheltering to provide pets awaiting adoption with longer‐term stays. If not chosen by an adopter, an animal may stay in the shelter for weeks, months, or even years. Long‐term housing (i.e. greater than two weeks), however, predisposes animals to compromised behavioral health and welfare. In fact, maintaining the behavioral health and welfare of animals residing in shelters long term is extremely difficult because the risk of emotional distress and behavioral deterioration increases dramatically over time.

      Cats and dogs experience many stressors in animal shelters, beginning at the time of admission to the facility. Even under the best possible conditions, animal shelters are stressful by their very nature: Incoming animals are confined and exposed to varying intensities of new and novel stimuli as well as to a variety of infectious disease agents. When confined long term, they often suffer from anxiety, social isolation, inadequate mental stimulation, and lack of exercise, all of which can adversely affect their physical and behavioral health and decrease their adoptability. This may increase their LOS in some shelters or result in euthanasia in others. Over time, the animal's emotional and/or physical well‐being is compromised even further.

      When addressing behavioral health in the shelter, just as with disease control, prevention is crucial. A behavioral wellness program starts with proactive strategies to decrease stress and promote a positive emotional environment from the moment animals arrive at the shelter until the moment their stay ends. As previously described, a thorough behavioral history and examination are essential and will provide an important baseline for action and follow‐up. Also, ongoing examination and observation of behavior during all interactions