English Literature. William J. Long

I have worn,

       To bear it after me. For fifty years

       I ruled these people well, and not a king

       Of those who dwell around me, dared oppress

       Or meet me with his hosts. At home I waited

       For the time that Wyrd controls. Mine own I kept,

       Nor quarrels sought, nor ever falsely swore.

       Now, wounded sore, I wait for joy to come." ^[11]

      He sends Wiglaf into the firedrake's cave, who finds it filled with rare treasures and, most wonderful of all, a golden banner from which light proceeds and illumines all the darkness. But Wiglaf cares little for the treasures; his mind is full of his dying chief. He fills his hands with costly ornaments and hurries to throw them at his hero's feet. The old man looks with sorrow at the gold, thanks the "Lord of all" that by death he has gained more riches for his people, and tells his faithful thane how his body shall be burned on the Whale ness, or headland:

      "My life is well paid for this hoard; and now

       Care for the people's needs. I may no more

       Be with them. Bid the warriors raise a barrow

       After the burning, on the ness by the sea,

       On Hronesness, which shall rise high and be

       For a remembrance to my people. Seafarers

       Who from afar over the mists of waters

       Drive foamy keels may call it Beowulf's Mount

       Hereafter." Then the hero from his neck

       Put off a golden collar; to his thane,

       To the young warrior, gave it with his helm,

       Armlet and corslet; bade him use them well.

       "Thou art the last Waegmunding of our race,

       For fate has swept my kinsmen all away.

       Earls in their strength are to their Maker gone,

       And I must follow them."^[12]

      Beowulf was still living when Wiglaf sent a messenger hurriedly to his people; when they came they found him dead, and the huge dragon dead on the sand beside him.

      Then the Goth's people reared a mighty pile

       With shields and armour hung, as he had asked,

       And in the midst the warriors laid their lord,

       Lamenting. Then the warriors on the mount

       Kindled a mighty bale fire; the smoke rose

       Black from the Swedish pine, the sound of flame

       Mingled with sound of weeping; … while smoke

       Spread over heaven. Then upon the hill

       The people of the Weders wrought a mound,

       High, broad, and to be seen far out at sea.

       In ten days they had built and walled it in

       As the wise thought most worthy; placed in it

       Rings, jewels, other treasures from the hoard.

       They left the riches, golden joy of earls,

       In dust, for earth to hold; where yet it lies,

       Useless as ever. Then about the mound

       The warriors rode, and raised a mournful song

       For their dead king; exalted his brave deeds,

       Holding it fit men honour their liege lord,

       Praise him and love him when his soul is fled.

       Thus the [Geat's] people, sharers of his hearth,

       Mourned their chief's fall, praised him, of kings, of men

       The mildest and the kindest, and to all

       His people gentlest, yearning for their praise. ^[13]

      One is tempted to linger over the details of the magnificent ending: the unselfish heroism of Beowulf, the great prototype of King Alfred; the generous grief of his people, ignoring gold and jewels in the thought of the greater treasure they had lost; the memorial mound on the low cliff, which would cause every returning mariner to steer a straight course to harbor in the remembrance of his dead hero; and the pure poetry which marks every noble line. But the epic is great enough and simple enough to speak for itself. Search the literatures of the world, and you will find no other such picture of a brave man's death.

      History and Meaning of BeowulfConcerning the history of Beowulf a whole library has been written, and scholars still differ too radically for us to express a positive judgment. This much, however, is clear,--that there existed, at the time the poem was composed, various northern legends of Beowa, a half-divine hero, and the monster Grendel. The latter has been interpreted in various ways,--sometimes as a bear, and again as the malaria of the marsh lands. For those interested in symbols the simplest interpretation of these myths is to regard Beowulf's successive fights with the three dragons as the overcoming, first, of the overwhelming danger of the sea, which was beaten back by the dykes; second, the conquering of the sea itself, when men learned to sail upon it; and third, the conflict with the hostile forces of nature, which are overcome at last by man's indomitable will and perseverance.

      All this is purely mythical; but there are historical incidents to reckon with. About the year 520 a certain northern chief, called by the chronicler Chochilaicus (who is generally identified with the Hygelac of the epic), led a huge plundering expedition up the Rhine. After a succession of battles he was overcome by the Franks, but--and now we enter a legendary region once more--not until a gigantic nephew of Hygelac had performed heroic feats of valor, and had saved the remnants of the host by a marvelous feat of swimming. The majority of scholars now hold that these historical events and personages were celebrated in the epic; but some still assert that the events which gave a foundation for Beowulf occurred wholly on English soil, where the poem itself was undoubtedly written.

      Poetical FormThe rhythm of Beowulf and indeed of all our earliest poetry depended upon accent and alliteration; that is, the beginning of two or more words in the same line with the same sound or letter. The lines were made up of two short halves, separated by a pause. No rime was used; but a musical effect was produced by giving each half line two strongly accented syllables. Each full line, therefore, had four accents, three of which (i.e. two in the first half, and one in the second) usually began with the same sound or letter. The musical effect was heightened by the harp with which the gleeman accompanied his singing.. The poetical form will be seen clearly in the following selection from the wonderfully realistic description of the fens haunted by Grendel. It will need only one or two readings aloud to show that many of these strange-looking words are practically the same as those we still use, though many of the vowel sounds were pronounced differently by our ancestors.

      … Hie dygel lond

       Warigeath, wulf-hleothu, windige næssas,

       Frecne fen-gelad, thær fyrgen-stream

       Under næssa genipu nither gewiteth,

       Flod under foldan. Nis thæt feor heonon,

       Mil-gemearces, thaet se mere standeth,

       Ofer thæm hongiath hrinde bearwas

      … They (a) darksome land

       Ward (inhabit), wolf cliffs, windy nesses,

       Frightful fen paths where mountain stream

       Under nesses' mists nether (downward) wanders,

       A flood under earth. It is not far hence,

       By mile measure, that the mere stands,

       Over which hang rimy groves.

Illustration: A PAGE FROM THE MANUSCRIPT OF BEOWULF A PAGE FROM THE MANUSCRIPT OF BEOWULF

      Widsith. The poem "Widsith," the wide goer or wanderer, is in part, at least, probably the oldest in our language. The