Popular Scientific Recreations in Natural Philosphy, Astronomy, Geology, Chemistry, etc., etc., etc. Gaston Tissandier

the pressures of sixteen atmospheres will not steam till it reaches 398°. It is thus we obtain pressure for locomotives, and other engines, although a very small portion of the steam does work. Much the largest portion is expended in overcoming cohesion, and one way and another, taking into consideration defects in machinery, only about one-tenth of the heat is employed in doing the work. The force exercised by steam under atmospheric pressure is sufficient to raise a ton weight one foot.

      To obtain very high temperatures we shall find the thermometer of no use, for mercury boils at 662°, so an instrument called a Pyrometer is used to ascertain the fusing point of metals. Mr. Wedgwood, the celebrated china manufacturer, invented an instrument made of small cylinders of clay moulded and backed, placed between two brass rods as gauges divided into inches and tenths. But this instrument has been long superseded by Professor Daniell’s Pyrometer, which consists of a small bar of platina in an earthenware tube. The difference of expansion between the platina and the tube is measured on a scale on which one degree is equal to seven degrees of Fahrenheit. Thus the melting temperatures of metals are ascertained.

      

      The reflection and refraction of heat are ruled by the same laws as the reflection and refraction of light. A convex lens will bring the heat or light to a focus, and will act as a burning-glass if held in the sunlight. Gunpowder has been ignited by a lens of ice, and more than one house has been mysteriously set on fire at midday in summer by the sun’s rays shining through a glass globe of water containing gold fish, and falling upon some inflammable substance. Professor Tyndall performed a series of experiments of a very interesting nature, described in his book, “Heat considered as a Mode or Motion,” and showed the transmutation of invisible heat rays into visible rays, by passing a beam of electric light through an opaque solution, and concentrating it upon a lens. The dark heat rays were thus brought to a focus, all the light was cut off, and at the dark focus the heat was found to be intense enough to melt copper and explode gunpowder. This change of invisible heat into light is termed Calorescence.

      It was Sir William Herschell who discovered that there were heat rays beyond the red end of the spectrum. When light is split up into its component rays, or decomposed, Sir William found that the heat increased as the thermometer passed from violet to indigo, and so on to blue, green, orange, and red, and the last were the hottest, while beyond the spectrum there was heat even greater. A Heat Spectrum was thus discovered, and by comparing, by means of the thermometer, the various degrees of heat within certain limits, Professor Tyndall found that the invisible Heat Spectrum is longer than the visible Light Spectrum.

      

CHAPTER IX.

       Table of Contents

      LIGHT AND ITS SOURCES—WHAT IS LIGHT?—VELOCITY OF LIGHT—REFLECTION AND REFRACTION—RELATIVE VALUE OF LIGHTS.

      The subject of Light and the science of Optics are so interesting to all of us that some short history of light is necessary before we can enter upon the scientific portion of the subject. The nature of the agent (as we may term light) upon which our sight depends has employed man’s mind from a very early period. The ancients were of opinion that the light proceeded from the eye to the object looked at. But they discovered some of the properties of light. Ptolemy of Alexandria, who was born A.D. 70, made some attempts to discover the law of Refraction; and we are informed that Archimedes set the Roman fleet on fire with burning-glasses at Syracuse. The Arabian treatise of Alhagen, in 1100 A.D., contains a description of the eye and its several parts; and the writer notices refraction and the effects of magnifying glasses (or spectacles). Galen, the physician, practically discovered the principle of the stereoscope, for he laid down the law that our view of a solid body is made up of two pictures seen by each eye separately.

      Still the science of optics made little progress till the law determining the path of a ray of light was made known, and the laws of refraction discovered. Refraction means that a ray is deflected from its straight course by its passage from one transparent medium to another of different density. The old philosophers found out the theory of sound, and they applied themselves to light. Newton said light consisted of minute particles emanating from luminous bodies. Huyghens and Euler opposed Newton’s theory of the emission of light; and it was not till the celebrated Thomas Young, Professor at the Royal Institution, grappled with the question that the undulating or wave theory of light was found out. He based his investigations upon the theory of sound waves; and we know that heat, light, and sound are most wonderfully allied in their manner of motion by vibration. But he was ridiculed, and his work temporarily suppressed by Mr. Brougham.

      Light, then, is a vibratory motion (like sound and heat), a motion of the atoms of our ether. But how is the motion transmitted? Sound has its medium, air; and in a vacuum sounds will be very indistinctly heard, if heard at all. But what is the medium of communication of light? It is decided that light is transmitted through a medium called ether, a very elastic substance surrounding us. The vibrations, Professor Tyndall and other philosophers tell us, of the luminous atoms are communicated to this ether, or propagated through it in waves; these waves enter the pupil of the eye, and strike upon the retina. The motion is thus communicated by the optic nerve to the brain, and then arises the great primary faculty, Consciousness. We see light, the waves of which, or ether vibrations, are transversal; air waves or sound vibrations are longitudinal.

      We have spoken of radiant heat. Light acts in the same way through the ether; and when we consider Sound we shall learn that a certain number of vibrations of a string give a certain sound, and the quicker the vibration the shriller the tone. So in light. The more quickly the waves of luminosity travel to our eye, and the faster they strike it, the greater the difference in the colour, or what we call colour. Light as we see it is composed of different colours, as visible in the rainbow. There are seven primary colours in the sunlight, which is white. These can be divided or “dispersed,” and the shortest rays of the spectrum are found to be violet, the longest red. It has been calculated that 39,000 red waves make an inch in length. Light travels at a rate of nearly 190,000 miles a second, so if we multiply the number of inches in that distance by the number of red waves, we shall have millions of millions of waves entering the eye in a single second of time. The other waves enter more rapidly still, and “the number of shocks corresponding to the impression of violet is seven hundred and eighty-nine millions of millions” per second! Or taking the velocity of light at 186,000 miles in a second, it would be six hundred and seventy-eight millions of millions (Tyndall). There may be other colours which we cannot see because the impressions come too rapidly upon the retina; but the violet impression has been thus accurately determined. See page 168.

      We have seen that heat is a kind of motion of particles in a body—a vibratory motion which, instead of being apparent to the ear, is apparent to the eye in rays of light. Thus heat, sound, and light are all intimately connected in this way. We have also learnt that rays of light radiate and travel with tremendous speed to our eyes, but without any shock. There is no feeling connected with the entrance of light to the eye any more than there is any sensation of sound when entering the ear, except when the light is vividly and very suddenly revealed, or when a very piercing sound is heard. Then the nerves are excited, and a painful sensation is the result; but under ordinary circumstances we are not physically conscious of the entrance of light or sound.

      Heat and light are considered to be one and the same thing in different degrees of intensity. The sources of light are various. The sun and fixed stars, heat, electricity, many animals, and some plants, as well as decaying animal matter, give out light. There are luminous and non-luminous bodies. The moon is non-luminous, as she derives her light from the sun, as does the earth, etc.

      Light is distributed in rays. These rays are straight in all directions. The velocity of light is almost inconceivable. It travels at a rate of 186,500 miles a second. The latest computation with electric light has given a rate of 187,200 miles a second; but the blue rays in the light experimented on probably account for the difference, for blue rays travel quicker by one per cent. than red rays.