Industrial Environmental Management. Tapas K. Das

had allowed the Metropolitan Commission for Sewers to close cesspits around the city in an attempt to “clean up,” but this simply led people to pollute the river. In 19 days, Parliament passed a further Act to build the London sewerage system.

       Alkali Act 1863 and Alkali Act 1874, amended 1906

       WS Jevons, The Coal Question; An Inquiry Concerning the Progress of the Nation, and the Probable Exhaustion of Our Coal Mines (1865)

       Ground Game Act 1880, Night Poaching Act 1828, Game Act 1831, game preservation

       James Johnston (socialist politician), president of the Smoke Abatement League, international conference in 1911

London also suffered from terrible air pollution, and this culminated in the “Great Smog” of 1952, which in turn triggered its own legislative response: the Clean Air Act 1956. The basic regulatory structure was to set limits on emissions for households and business (particularly burning coal), while an inspectorate would enforce compliance. It required zones for smokeless fuel to be burned and relocated power stations.

       Clean Air Act 1968 required tall chimneys to disperse pollution.

2.14 United States Environmental Law

      United States environmental law concerns legal standards to protect human health and improve the natural environment of the United States. While subject to criticism at home and abroad on issues of protection, enforcement, and over‐regulation, the country remains an important source of environmental legal expertise and experience.

      2.14.1 Scope

      The United States Congress has enacted federal statutes intended to address pollution control and remediation, including for example the Clean Air Act (air pollution), the Clean Water Act (water pollution), and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA, or Superfund) (contaminated site cleanup). There are also federal laws governing natural resources use and biodiversity which are strongly influenced by environmental principles, including the Endangered Species Act, National Forest Management Act, and Coastal Zone Management Act. The National Environmental Policy Act, governing environmental impact review in actions undertaken or approved by the US federal government, may implicate all of these areas.

      Federalism in the United States has played a role in the shape of national environmental legislation. Many federal environmental laws employ cooperative federalism mechanisms – many federal regulatory programs are administered in coordination with the US states. Furthermore, the states generally have enacted their own laws to cover areas not preempted by federal law. This includes areas where Congress had acted in limited fashion (e.g. state site cleanup laws to handle sites outside Superfund) and where Congress has left regulation primarily to the states (e.g. water resources law).

      2.14.2 History

      The history of environmental law in the United States can be traced back to early roots in common law doctrines, for example, the law of nuisance and the public trust doctrine. The first environmental statute was the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899, which has been largely superseded by the Clean Water Act of 1972 (CWA). However, most current major environmental statutes, such as the federal statutes listed previously, were passed in the time spanning the late 1960s through the early 1980s. Prior to the passage of these statutes, most federal environmental laws were not nearly as comprehensive.

      Silent Spring, a 1962 book by Rachel Carson, is frequently credited as launching the environmental movement in the United States. The book documented the effects of pesticides, especially DDT, on birds and other wildlife (Carson 1962; Hynes 1989). Among the most significant environmental disasters of the 1960s was the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill, which generated considerable public outrage as Congress was considering several major pieces of environmental legislation. (See Environmental movement in the United States, Clean Water Act (1972), USEPA.)

      One lawsuit that has been widely recognized as one of the earliest environmental cases is Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference v. Federal Power Commission, decided in 1965 by the Second Circuit Court of Appeals, prior to passage of the major federal environmental statutes. The case helped halt the construction of a power plant on Storm King Mountain in New York State. The case has been described as giving birth to environmental litigation and helping create the legal doctrine of standing to bring environmental claims (Scenic Hudson Inc. 1963). The Scenic Hudson case also is said to have helped inspire the passage of the NEPA, and the creation of such environmental advocacy groups as the Natural Resources Defense Council.

      2.14.3 Legal Sources

      Laws from every stratum of the laws of the United States pertain to environmental issues. Congress has passed a number of landmark environmental regulatory regimes, but many other federal laws are equally important, if less comprehensive. Concurrently, the legislatures of the 50 states have passed innumerable comparable sets of laws. These state and federal systems are foliated with layer upon layer of administrative regulation. Meanwhile, the US judicial system reviews not only the legislative enactments but also the administrative decisions of the many agencies dealing with environmental issues. Where the statutes and regulations end, the common law begins (Superfund Regulations 2017).

      2.14.4 Federal Regulation

Consistent with the federal statutes that they administer, US federal agencies promulgate regulations in the CFR that fill out the broad programs enacted by Congress. Primary among these is Title 40 of the CFR, containing the regulations of the EPA. Other important CFR sections include Title 10 (energy), Title 18 (Conservation of Power and Water Resources), Title 21 (Food and Drugs), Title 33 (Navigable Waters), Title 36 (Parks, Forests and Public Property), Title 43 (Public Lands: Interior), and Title 50 (Wildlife and Fisheries).

      2.14.5 Judicial Decisions

      The federal and state judiciaries have played an important role in the development of environmental law in the United States, in many cases resolving significant controversy regarding the application of federal environmental laws in favor of environmental interests. The decisions of the Supreme Court in cases such as Calvert Cliffs Coordinating Committee v. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (broadly reading the procedural requirements of NEPA), Tennessee Valley Authority v. Hill (broadly reading the Endangered Species Act), and, much more recently 14 May 2015, Massachusetts v. EPA (requiring EPA to reconsider regulation of greenhouse gases under the Clean Air Act) have had policy impacts far beyond the facts of the particular case.

      2.14.6 Common Law

      The common law of tort is an important tool for the resolution of environmental disputes that fall beyond the confines of regulated activity. Prior to the modern proliferation of environmental regulation, the doctrines of nuisance (public or private), trespass, negligence, and strict liability apportioned harm and assigned liability for activities that today would be considered pollution and likely governed by regulatory regimes. These doctrines remain relevant, and most recently have been used by plaintiffs seeking to impose liability for the consequences of global climate change (Lehman and Phelps 2004).

      The common law also continues to play a leading role in American water law, in the doctrines of riparian rights and prior appropriation.

      2.14.7 Administration

      In the United States, responsibilities for the administration of environmental laws are divided between numerous federal and state agencies with varying, overlapping, and sometimes conflicting missions. EPA is the most well‐known federal agency, with jurisdiction over many of the country's national air, water, and waste and hazardous substance programs (USEPA 2017a, b). Other federal agencies, such as the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and National Park Service pursue primarily conservation missions (US Fish & Wildlife Service 2018; US National Park Service