Infants and Children in Context. Tara L. Kuther

Bioecological Systems TheoryEthology and Evolutionary Developmental TheoryDynamic Systems Theory

       Research in Human DevelopmentThe Scientific MethodMethods of Data CollectionObservational MeasuresSelf-Report MeasuresPhysiological MeasuresResearch DesignsCase StudyCorrelational ResearchExperimental ResearchDevelopmental Research DesignsCross-Sectional Research DesignLongitudinal Research DesignCross-Sequential Research DesignResearch Ethics

      Understanding Development

      Individuals undergo innumerable changes as they progress through infancy, childhood, and adolescence, a process known as development. Development refers to the processes by which we grow and change, as well as the ways in which we stay the same over time. The field of developmental science studies human development at all points in life, from conception to death. In this book we will examine child development; however, individuals undergo complex changes at every period in life, beginning before birth and continuing throughout adulthood.

      Periods of Development

      One of the challenges of studying infants and children is that a great many changes occur over just a few years. Researchers divide the time between conception and adolescence into a series of periods, summarized below. Each developmental period is characterized by a predictable pattern of physical, cognitive, and social abilities, or domains of development.

      Prenatal Period (Conception to Birth)

      Upon conception a single cell is formed. This cell multiples repeatedly to form the body structures and organs that will compose the newborn.

      Infancy and Toddlerhood (Birth to 2 Years)

      Newborns’ senses and early learning abilities enable them to adapt to the world. Dramatic changes occur in physical growth as well as motor, perceptual, and intellectual abilities. Infants begin to use language and form emotional bonds with caregivers. Infancy comprises the first year of life; toddlerhood spans the second.

      Early Childhood (2 to 6 Years)

      Children’s muscles strengthen and they become more coordinated. As thinking, language, and self-regulation improve, children establish ties with peers and engage in make-believe play.

      Middle Childhood (6 to 11 Years)

      As children enter school, their memory and reasoning improve and they learn academic skills such as reading, writing, and arithmetic. As children advance cognitively and gain social experience, their self-understanding and self-control improves. Friendships develop and become more complex and peer group memberships become more important.

      Adolescence (11 to 18 Years)

      With puberty, adolescents become physically and sexually mature. Adolescents’ thinking becomes more complex and abstract. Adolescents spend more time with peers and friendships become more important. They are driven to learn about themselves, become independent from their parents, and define their values and goals. Whether adolescence ends at age 18 is debated by developmental scientists. Some argue that adolescence persists through the college years, ending at about age 21. Others propose an additional period of development called emerging adulthood, extending from the completion of secondary education at about age 18 to the adoption of adult roles at about age 25 (Arnett, 2000).

      Domains of Development

      Consider the many changes that mark each period of development and it is apparent that development is multidimensional. That is, development includes changes in multiple domains of development. Perhaps the most obvious set of changes includes physical development, body maturation, and growth, such as body size, proportion, appearance, health, and perceptual abilities. Cognitive development refers to the maturation of thought processes and the tools that we use to obtain knowledge, become aware of the world around us, and solve problems. Socioemotional development includes changes in emotions, social abilities, self-understanding, and interpersonal relationships with family and friends. These domains of development overlap and interact. For example, the onset of walking precedes advances in language development in infants in the United States and China (He, Walle, & Campos, 2015; Walle & Campos, 2013). Babies who walk tend to spend more time interacting with caregivers; they can initiate interactions with caregivers, such as by bringing objects to them (Clearfield, 2011). They also evoke more verbal responses and warnings from caregivers as they interact with items and explore their environment. Therefore, walking (motor development) is associated with language and social development. Figure 1.1 illustrates how the three domains of development interact, a central principle of development.

      Description

      Figure 1.1 Domains of Development

      Advances in physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development interact, permitting children to play sports, learn more efficiently, and develop close friendships.

      iStock/Essentials; iStock/Signature; Jupiter/Pixland/Thinkstock

      Contexts of Development

      Where did you grow up? Describe your childhood neighborhood. Did you play in a park or on a playground? Did you ride your bike outside? What was your elementary school like? Did you have access to technology such as tablets and computers? Did you learn to type in school? How large is your family? What were some of your family traditions? What holidays did you celebrate? Did you share family meals often? Your responses to these questions reveal aspects of your context.

      Context refers to where and when a person develops. Context encompasses many aspects of the physical and social environment, such as family, neighborhood, country, and historical time period. It includes intangible factors, characteristics that are not visible to the naked eye, such as values, customs, ideals, and culture. In order to understand a given individual’s development, we must look to his or her context, including the subtle, less easily viewed, factors. For example, were you encouraged to be assertive and actively question the adults around you, or were you expected to be quiet and avoid confrontation? How large a part was spirituality or religion in your family’s life? How did religious values shape your parent’s childrearing practices and your own values? How did your family’s economic status affect your development? These questions examine a critical context for our development, home and family. However, we are embedded in many more contexts that influence us, and that we influence, such as our peer group, school, neighborhood or community, and culture (see the Lives in Context feature). Our development plays out within the contexts in which we live, a theme that we will return to throughout this book.

      Thinking in Context 1.1

      1 Consider the multidimensional nature of your development. Provide personal examples of physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development. What changes have you experienced in each of these areas over your childhood? How have these abilities influenced one another?

      2 Describe the multiple contexts in which you were raised. How might these have influenced your physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development? Provide examples.

      3 In what ways might your physical, cognitive, or socioemotional development have influenced aspects of your context?

      Lives in Context: Cultural Context

      Defining Culture