Infants and Children in Context. Tara L. Kuther

principles are most relevant to her work? Why? What challenges might she anticipate?

      Apply Your Knowledge

      Nine-year-old Christopher taunts his classmate, Josh, at recess: “Chicken! What are you afraid of? Everything!” He shoves Josh. Josh quietly walks away, head down and sniffling. This happens several times each week. Christopher and Josh’s classmates usually notice and most watch. Some laugh at the funny things Christopher says or when Josh trips as he slinks away and hopes that Christopher will leave him alone.

      Christopher walks home alone after school. He usually takes the long way, walking around the block to avoid the older kids who hang out outside the convenience store on the corner. The older kids are friends with Christopher’s brother and they often tease Christopher, especially when his brother is there. Sometimes the kids take Christopher’s hat and laugh when he tries to retrieve it. No one in the neighborhood seems to notice. Christopher thinks it’s because no one cares.

      Christopher returns to an empty home. After entering, he quickly and quietly walks through his home to be sure that it’s empty. His mother always reminds him to be sure that it’s safe before settling in. He feels silly but also a little bit nervous as he looks around. “You can’t be too careful,” he thinks to himself. Afterward Christopher locks the door and makes a snack.

      Christopher’s mother usually doesn’t get home from work until 7 p.m. Christopher knows he should do his homework like his mother says, but what’s the point when he keeps getting Ds and Fs? Instead, Christopher plays video games. He likes to pretend that he’s in the game, running, leaping, and shooting at the bad guys. Christopher wants to be strong and tough so that nobody messes with him. “Not like that weakling Josh,” he thinks.

      1 Describe Christopher’s behavior and interactions at school, in his neighborhood, and at home.

      2 How might behaviorist and social learning theorists explain Christopher’s behavior at school? In his neighborhood? At home?

      3 How might Erikson explain Christopher’s development and behavior?

      4 Consider Christopher’s development and behavior from the perspective of Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological systems theory. Specifically:Identify macrosystem influences on Christopher’s behavior.Discuss the interactions among mesosystem factors that might influence Christopher.Give examples of exosystem factors and discuss how they might influence Christopher’s behavior and development.How might the macrosystem affect Christopher?

      Want a better grade?

      Get the tools you need to sharpen your study skills. SAGE edge offers a robust online environment featuring an impressive array of free tools and resources. Access practice quizzes, eFlashcards, video, and multimedia at edge.sagepub.com/kutherchild1e.

      Key Terms

       Development 4

       Developmental science 4

       Domains of development 4

       Emerging adulthood 4

       Physical development 4

       Cognitive development 4

       Socioemotional development 4

       Context 5

       Culture 6

       Nature–nurture debate 7

       Applied developmental science 7

       Continuous change 8

       Discontinuous change 8

       Theory 10

       Hypothesis 10

       Psychoanalytic theory 10

       Behaviorism 11

       Classical conditioning 13

       Operant conditioning 14

       Reinforcement 14

       Punishment 14

       Social learning theory 14

       Observational learning 14

       Reciprocal determinism 14

       Cognitive-developmental theory 15

       Cognitive schema 15

       Information processing theory 16

       Sociocultural theory 16

       Bioecological systems theory 17

       Ethology 19

       Evolutionary developmental theory 20

       Epigenetics 20

       Dynamic systems theory 21

       Scientific method 23

       Naturalistic observation 23

       Structured observation 24

       Open-ended interview 24

       Structured interview 24

       Questionnaire 24

       Case study 26

       Correlational research 27

       Experimental research 27

       Dependent variable 27

       Independent variable 27

       Random assignment 27

       Cross-sectional research study 28

       Longitudinal research study 28

       Cross-sequential research study 29

       Beneficence and nonmaleficence 30

       Responsibility 30

       Integrity 30

       Justice 30

       Respect for autonomy 31

       Informed consent 31

       Child assent 31

      Summary

       1.1 Describe the periods, domains, and contexts of development.Development begins at conception and continues prenatally and through several periods from infancy to adolescence. Each period is characterized by a predictable pattern of physical, cognitive, and socioemotional developments that unfold across a variety of contexts in which the developing person interacts, such as home, school, and peer group.

       1.2 Explain three basic issues in developmental science.Developmental scientists sometimes disagree on several fundamental questions about how development proceeds and its influences. First, in what ways is developmental change continuous, characterized by slow and gradual change, or discontinuous, characterized by sudden and abrupt change? Second, to what extent do people play an active role in their own development, interacting with and influencing the world around them? Finally, is development caused by nature or nurture—heredity or the environment? Most developmental scientists agree that some aspects of development appear continuous and others discontinuous, that individuals are active in influencing their development, and that development reflects the interactions of nature and nurture.

       1.3 Summarize six theoretical perspectives on human development.Freud’s psychosexual theory explains personality development as progressing through a series of psychosexual stages during childhood. Erikson’s psychosocial theory suggests that individuals move through eight stages of psychosocial development across the lifespan, with each stage presenting a unique psychosocial task, or crisis. Behaviorist and social learning theory