Throw Like a Girl, Cheer Like a Boy. Robyn Ryle

      16.

      Ibid., 84–85.

      17.

      “LPGA Teaching and Club Professionals: A History,” LGPA, n.d., http://www.lpga.com/tcp/historytcp (accessed February 5, 2019).

      18.

      Bill Francis, “League of Women Ballplayers,” National Baseball Hall of Fame, n.d., https://baseballhall.org/discover-more/stories/baseball-history/league-of-women-ballplayers (accessed February 5, 2019).

      19.

      “A History of Women in Formula One,” CNN Sports, August 21, 2018, https://www.cnn.com/2018/08/21/motorsport/gallery/women-in-formula-one-spt-intl/index.html (accessed February 5, 2019).

      20.

      “Danica Patrick and the Women of NASCAR,” ABCNews, n.d., https://abcnews.go.com/Business/photos/women-nascar-danica-patrick-indy-500-14343965/image-19000228 (accessed February 5, 2019).

      21.

      Sherry Mabron Gordon, Women Athletes (Berkeley Heights, NJ: Enslow Publishing, 2017), 48; Ed Zieralski, “Timeline: Horse Racing’s Women Jockeys,” San Diego Union-Tribune, June 8, 2013, https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sports/horse-racing/sdut-women-jockeys-horse-racing-2013jun08-htmlstory.html (accessed February 5, 2019).

      22.

      Karen Blumenthal, Let Me Play: The Story of Title IX, the Law That Changed the Future of Girls in America (New York: Athaneum Books, 2005), 41–44.

      23.

      “Woman Kicks Extra Points,” New York Times, October 20, 1997, https://www.nytimes.com/1997/10/20/sports/woman-kicks-extra-points.html (accessed February 13, 2019).

      24.

      Jake Simpson, “How Title IX Sneakily Revolutionized Women’s Sports,” The Atlantic, June 21, 2012, https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2012/06/how-title-ix-sneakily-revolutionized-womens-sports/258708/ (accessed February 13, 2019).

      25.

      Blumenthal, Let Me Play, 38; Kristina Chan, “The Mother of Title IX: Patsy Mink,” The She Network, April 24, 2012, https://www.womenssportsfoundation.org/education/mother-title-ix-patsy-mink/ (accessed February 13, 2019).

      26.

      Simpson, “How Title IX Sneakily Revolutionized Women’s Sports.”

      27.

      Barbara Winslow, “The Impact of Title IX,” History Now: The Journal of the Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, September 24, 2016, https://faculty.uml.edu/sgallagher/The_Impact_of_Title_IX-_GilderLehrman.pdf (accessed February 13, 2019); Jaeah Lee and Maya Dusenbery, “Charts: The State of Women’s Athletics, 40 Years after Title IX,” Mother Jones, June 22, 2012, https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2012/06/charts-womens-athletics-title-nine-ncaa/ (accessed February 13, 2019).

      28.

      Winslow, “The Impact of Title IX.”

      29.

      Lee and Dusenbery, “Charts.”

      30.

      Alana Semuels, “Poor Girls Are Leaving Their Brothers Behind,” The Atlantic, November 27, 2017, https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2017/11/gender-education-gap/546677/ (accessed February 13, 2019).

      31.

      Schultz, Qualifying Times, 131–33; Blumenthal, Let Me Play, 65–74.

      32.

      Blumenthal, Let Me Play, 41–46.

      33.

      Dominque Debucquoy-Dodley, “NJ Youth Basketball Team Forfeits, Won’t Play Season without Girl Teammates,” CNN, February 16, 2017, https://www.cnn.com/2017/02/13/us/kid-basketball-season-trnd/index.html (accessed February 13, 2019).

      34.

      Debucquoy-Dodley, “NJ Youth Basketball Team Forfeits.”

      35.

      Eric Anderson, “‘I Used to Think Women Were Weak’: Orthodox Masculinity, Gender Segregation, and Sport,” Sociological Forum 23, no. 2 (2008): 260.

      36.

      Anderson, “‘I Used to Think Women Were Weak,’” 271.

      Chapter 2

      How to Tell If a Woman

       Is “Really” a Woman

      Gender Testing and the Olympics

      In 2009, South African runner Caster Semenya won the 800-meter race at the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) World Championship, clocking the 13th fastest time in the history of the event. During live coverage of the race, a statement from the IAAF was read, stating that there were concerns that Semenya “does not meet the requirements to compete as a woman.”^[1] The IAAF asked Semenya to refrain from competition even though they didn’t explain which requirements Semenya had failed to meet. While she waited to be cleared for competition, critics, competitors, and the media mocked Semenya as being too fast, too muscular, having a chest that was too flat, a jawline too square, a voice too deep, and hips too narrow.^[2] A Time magazine headline asked of Semenya, “Could This Women’s World Champion Be a Man?”^[3] In essence, Semenya was too good an athlete to be a woman. Semenya’s case, though certainly the most well-known example to date, is just the latest in a long history of gender testing for women in sports. There’s no parallel interest in making sure that the men competing are really men. What explains this concern with patrolling the gender line in women’s sports, but not men’s?

      Women Applaud and Men Compete

      For the first century of its existence as a modern sporting event, the Olympic Games had no women athletes. Pierre de Coubertin, who restarted the Games in 1896, believed that the Olympics should be focused solely on “male athleticism . . . with the applause of women as a reward.”^[4] But even before the modern era of Olympic competition, there’s evidence of women being barred from any form of sports participation. According to Pausanias’s second-century Description of Greece, a woman named Calipateira passed herself off as a male trainer in order to accompany her son to a gymnastic competition. When she was found out, she escaped the death sentence usually imposed for women who sneaked into the games. But in response to her intrusion, a law was passed stipulating that future trainers had to strip before they entered the