No Ordinary Men. Bernd Horn

be made to wonder where they were going to be struck next, instead of forcing us to try to wall in the island and roof it over!”[20]

      On June 6, Churchill sent yet another missive to Ismay. “Enterprises must be prepared,” he wrote, “with specially trained troops of the hunter class who can develop a reign of terror down these coasts, first of all on the butcher and bolt policy.” He vividly recounted, “There comes from the sea a hand of steel that plucks the German sentries from their posts.”[21] He then curtly directed the “Joint Chiefs of the Staff to propose me measures for a vigorous, enterprising, and ceaseless offensive against the whole German-occupied coastline.” He added the requirement for deep inland raids that left “a trail of German corpses behind.”[22]

      As a result, during the early years of the war a plethora of SOF organ­izations and units, such as the Special Operations Executive (SOE), the Commandos, the Long Range Desert Group (LRDG), the Special Air Service (SAS), and the American Rangers, to name a few, emerged, creating a means to strike back at the seemingly invincible German military machine.

      One of the first unconventional efforts was the creation of the Special Operations Executive, which was a British secret service intended to promote subversive warfare in enemy-occupied territory. It was formed in July 1940 in the aftermath of the disastrous retreat from Dunkirk, as England braced itself for the inevitable invasion. It was designed as a “full[-]scale secret service, the mere existence of which could not be admitted either to Parliament or to the press.”[23] The SOE became responsible for “all operations of sabotage, secret subversive propaganda, the encouragement of civil resistance in occupied areas, the stirring up of insurrection, strikes, etc., in Germany or areas occupied by her.”[24] Specifically, the SOE was responsible for training agents and organizers, as well as deploying them into the various target countries, with the object of establishing basic subversive organizations that could be expanded as required as the situation allowed. The main functions of the subversive organizations were explained as:

      1 Political Subversion and Propaganda: To encourage the popu­lation of the occupied countries against the forces of occu­pation and to undermine the morale of the latter;

      2 Sabotage: To build up a sabotage organization wherever the Axis can be effectively attacked, which is mainly in the occupied territories. The object of this activity is to wear down the Axis morally and economically and so hasten the date by which our military forces can take the offensive. Sabotage efforts must be correlated with those of the fighting services especially the bomber forces, and our present short term policy is, therefore, based on the instructions recently given to Bomber Command, whose efforts we intend to supplement by attacking rail, sea, canal, and road transport. The sabotage organization must also be prepared to harass the Axis lines of communication, should Great Britain be invaded, and to intensify its activities in close co-operation with any [A]llied invasion of the [C]ontinent;

      3 The Organization of Secret Armies: To build up and equip secret armies in occupied territories. These armies, in co-operation with the sabotage organizations, will be prepared to assist our military forces when they take the offensive, either directly in the theatre of operations or indirectly elsewhere, by attacks on communications, whether telegraphic or transport, by neutralization of seizure of aerodromes, by a general attack on enemy aircraft and personnel, and by producing disorder in the enemy’s rearward services.[25]

      The Canadian connection was not long in coming. Shortly after its creation, the SOE queried the senior Canadian commander overseas, Major- General A.G.L. McNaughton, for Canadian volunteers. Specifically, they were looking for French Canadians for service in France, Canadians of Eastern European descent for the Balkans, and Chinese Canadians for Far East operations. Clearly, the racial, linguistic, and cultural attributes and knowledge of these volunteers would provide the SOE with, in many aspects, ready-made operatives. Inculcating the specific technical skills would just be a matter of training.

      The Canadian volunteers, like the remainder of the men and women trained to serve in the SOE during World War II “were quickly made to forget all thoughts about Queensbury rules and so-called ‘gentlemanly’ warfare … [ and they] were taught a vast range of sabotage techniques and bizarre methods of killing.”[26] Moreover, they were thoroughly trained in advising, arming, and assisting members of the various resist­ance movements in the enemy-occupied countries.

      As much of the art and science of SOF was in its infancy, it is not surprising that SOE selection was inefficient. Initially, it consisted of a three- to four-week selection/training course. However, this was soon deemed too leisurely and ineffective. Many of those on course were failed out at the end of the process, which proved a waste of time and resources. By July 1943 a new selection course (student assessment board (SAB)) had been developed. This applied a variety of psychological and practical tests to candidates over a four day period. In this manner, questionable volunteers were screened out early. The SAB took less time and provided better results.

      Successful volunteers went through several phases of training. The first phase focused on ensuring all operatives were in top physical condition. In addition, the course provided all with an in-depth proficiency with Allied and German small arms, as well as expertise in explosives and demolition work. The first phase also provided instruction in the recognition of German uniforms and equipment. The next stage of training was conducted at the commando training centre in Arisaig, in the western Highlands of Scotland near the Isle of Skye. This phase provided rigorous field training and live fire exercises. Following the commando training came parachute qualification in Manchester. At the termination of qualification training, operatives were then separated according to their respective skills and sent to specialized training centres.

      The Canadian connection to the SOE went beyond the volunteers who served in the organization. It also extended to the establishment of Special Training School (STS) 103 or Camp X, which was located on secluded farmland outside of Whitby, Ontario. The camp served two functions. The first was to train men recruited in Canada, such as French Canadians and refugees from Eastern Europe, for service with the SOE in Europe. The second function was to give top-secret assistance to the American foreign intelligence service, an activity that could not be done in the United States as long as the United States remained neutral in the war.[27]

      Camp X was the first secret-agent training establishment in North America. It opened on December 9, 1941, and trained individuals according to their cultural groups. The officers, less the camp adjutant, were all British; however, the senior non-commissioned officers were all Canadian. Camp X closed on April 20, 1944.

      Throughout the war, 227 Canadians served in the SOE in the various theatres of the conflict. In addition, Canadian personnel in the Royal Canadian Air Force and those posted to Royal Air Force units also served in the Special Duties Squadrons used to drop weapons and insert and extract SOE personnel.[28] In the end, the value of the SOE was immense. In a Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF) report to the Combined Chiefs of Staff on July 18, 1945, General Dwight “Ike” Eisenhower’s staff noted, “without the organization, communications, training, and leadership which SOE supplied … resistance [movements] would have been of no military value.”[29]

      The SOE, however, was not the only innovative, unconventional effort. In a remarkable display of military efficiency, by June 8, 1940, two days after Churchill’s directive, Field Marshal Sir John Dill, the chief of the Imperial General Staff, received approval for the creation of the Commandos and, that same afternoon, Section MO9 of the War Office was established. Four days later, Churchill appointed Lieutenant- General Sir Alan Bourne, the adjutant-general of the Royal Marines, as “Commander of Raiding Operations on Coasts in Enemy Occupation and Advisor to the Chiefs of Staff on Combined Operations.”[30]

      The men drawn to the commando idea very quickly brought into being the concept that was expected. Raiding was their primary role. In essence, they were to be trained to be “hard[-]hitting assault troops” who were capable of working in co-operation with the navy and air force. As such, they were expected to execute plans from headquarters and capture strong points, destroy enemy services, neutralize coastal batteries, and wipe out any designated enemy force by surprise.[31] They were also told that they would have to become accustomed to longer hours, more work, and less rest than the other members