Lifespan Development. Tara L. Kuther

much poorer functioning (Jaekel, Pluess, Belsky, & Wolke, 2015). Longitudinal research has found that low-birthweight children raised in unstable, economically disadvantaged families tend to remain smaller in stature, experience more emotional problems, and show more long-term deficits in intelligence and academic performance than do those raised in more advantaged homes (Taylor, Klein, Minich, & Hack, 2001).

      Interventions to promote the development of low-birthweight children often emphasize helping parents learn coping strategies for interacting with their infants and managing parenting stress (Chang et al., 2015; Lau & Morse, 2003). Interventions focused on teaching parents how to massage and touch their infants in therapeutic ways as well as increase skin-to-skin contact with their infants are associated with better cognitive and neurodevelopmental outcomes at age 2 (Procianoy, Mendes, & Silveira, 2010). One intervention common in developing countries where mothers may not have access to hospitals is kangaroo care, in which the infant is placed vertically against the parent’s chest, under the shirt, providing skin-to-skin contact (Charpak et al., 2005). As the parent goes about daily activities, the infant remains warm and close, hears the voice and heartbeat, smells the body, and feels constant skin-to-skin contact. Kangaroo care is so effective that the majority of hospitals in the United States offer kangaroo care to preterm infants. Babies who receive early and consistent kangaroo care grow more quickly, sleep better, score higher on measures of health, and show more cognitive gains throughout the first year of life (Boundy et al., 2015; Jefferies, 2012).

      In summary, a remarkable amount of growth and development takes place between conception and birth. In 9 short months, the zygote transforms into a newborn. Although there are a variety of risks to health development within the womb, most newborns are healthy. Infants are born with a surprising array of competencies, such as well-developed hearing, taste, and smell. Additional physical, cognitive, and psychosocial capacities develop shortly after birth, as we will see in upcoming chapters.

      Thinking in Context 3.4

      1 In what ways might newborns’ perceptual capacities and states of arousal help them to adapt to life immediately after birth? Why is mature hearing, relative to vision, useful for infants? Do you think there is a benefit to shifting through several states of arousal?

      2 Parental responses to having a low-birthweight infant influence the child’s long-term health outcome. How might contextual factors influence parents’ responses? What supports from the family, community, and broader society can aid parents in helping their low-birthweight infants adapt and develop healthily?

      Apply Your Knowledge

      Dr. Preemie conducted a research study of the prevalence and correlates of drug use in college students. Because of the sensitive nature of the research topic, Dr. Preemie promised her participants confidentiality. Each college student who participated completed a set of surveys and an interview about his or her lifestyle and drug use habits. One participant, Carrie, revealed that she engages in moderate to heavy drug use (i.e., drinks two to four alcoholic beverages each day and smokes marijuana several times per week). During the interview, Carrie mentioned that she’s feeling nauseous. Concerned, Dr. Preemie asked, “Do you want to stop the interview and go to the campus medical center?” “No,” Carrie replied, “It’s just morning sickness. I’m pregnant.” “Oh,” said Dr. Preemie, who nodded and continued with the interview.

      Afterward, in her office, Dr. Preemie was torn and wondered to herself, “I’m worried about Carrie. Drugs and alcohol disrupt prenatal development, but I promised confidentiality. I can’t tell anyone about this! Should I say something to Carrie? I’m supposed to be nonjudgmental! Intervening might keep other students from participating in my research, for fear that I’d break my promises. I don’t know what to do.”

      1 What are the effects of teratogens, like drugs and alcohol, on prenatal development?

      2 Describe the course of prenatal development. How do the effects of exposure to teratogens change during prenatal development?

      3 Consider the ethical principles discussed in Chapter 1. How might Dr. Preemie’s obligations conflict? As a researcher, is she responsible to Carrie as a participant in her study who signed an informed consent form? Is Dr. Preemie responsible to the developing fetus? Why or why not? Do Dr. Preemie’s actions have any ramifications for the other participants in her study? How might these responsibilities conflict?

      4 What should Dr. Preemie do?

      Descriptions of Images and Figures

      Back to Figure

      The vagina is a muscular canal that connects to the uterus. At the lower end of the uterus is the cervix, a neck-like passageway. Extending from either side of the uterus are the fallopian tubes. Near the end of each tube are ovaries, which contain the corpus luteum and follicles.

      Back to Figure

      Ovulation starts in the ovary, which includes the corpus luteum and developing follicles. When the mature follicle bursts, it releases the ovum into the fallopian tube. The sperm then fertilizes the ovum in the fallopian tube. Cell division then begins. A morula develops and then turns into the blastocyst. The blastocyst then enters the uterus, andit implants into the endometrium.

      Back to Figure

      Following are the barriers reported and the percentage of mothers who reported each barrier as being a factor:

      Lack of money or insurance for visits: 38.7%

      Couldn’t get appointment when desired: 37.8%

      Didn’t know when she was pregnant: 37.1%

      Didn’t have a Medicaid card: 36.4%

      Doctor or health plan did not start as early as desired: 24.1%

      Mother was too busy: 19.7%

      Lacked transportation to clinic or doctor’s office: 13.9%

      Didn’t want anyone to know about pregnancy: 13.9%

      Could not take time off work or school: 9.8%

      Needed child care for other children: 7.9%

      Back to Figure

      For each educational level listed, three percentages are reported, in this order:(1) percentage of mothers who first received prenatal care during the first trimester, (2) percentage who first received care during the second trimester, and (3) percentage who first received care during third trimester or who received no care.

      Less than high school diploma: 58.5, 30.1, 11.4

      High school diploma or GED: 68.6, 24.2, 7.2

      Some college or associate’s degree: 76.1, 19.0, 4.9

      Bachelor’s degree or higher: 86.1, 11.2, 2.7

      Total: 74.1, 19.9, 6.0

      Back to Figure

      Graph 1: First trimester

      Non-Hispanic White: 82.3%

      Non-Hispanic Asian: 80.6%

      Hispanic: 72.0%

      Non-Hispanic Black: 66.6%

      Non-Hispanic American Indian or Alaska Native: 63.0%

      Non-Hispanic Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander: 51.9%

      Graph 2: Late or no care

      Non-Hispanic White: 4.3%

      Non-Hispanic Asian: 5.4%

      Hispanic: 7.7%

      Non-Hispanic