The Handy Military History Answer Book. Samuel Willard Crompton

of Navarre. Not until June of 1191 did the entire army reach the Holy Land.

      What was unique about the Siege of Acre?

      Located on the coast of modern-day Israel, Acre was one of the last Christian cities to hold out against the Muslims. Saladin had placed it under siege, only to find that the arrival of Richard and Philip placed him in a state of near siege. Not only were the numbers of men the largest that had ever been seen in a siege, but the tools and weapons had grown in size and power. Richard and Philip had both brought mangonels with them: stone-throwers that could, over time, crush the battlements of most cities.

      Saladin saw that the situation was hopeless, and he allowed the Muslim garrison to surrender. One of the provisions of the capitulation was that Saladin would provide food for the men who surrendered; when this was not done, Richard had 2,000 men summarily executed on the beaches near Acre. As this blood-curdling episode unfolded, Richard’s reputation—for power and cruelty—spread. When the Christian force moved down the coast, in the direction of modern-day Tel Aviv, the Muslims paralleled their movements, but did not attempt to stop Richard from advancing.

      Artist Gustave Doré’s illustration of Saladin fighting King Richard at the Battle of Arsuf during the Third Crusade.

       How did it so quickly become Richard’s crusade?

      It was Richard and Philip’s crusade until the siege of Acre ended. Just days later, King Philip asked permission to return to France, pleasing illness. Richard required Philip to swear, in the presence of his knights, that he would neither harm nor distress Richard’s castles in Normandy and Aquitaine. The two kings then parted, leaving Richard the clear leader of the crusade.

      How did the crusaders gain the upper hand on the Muslims?

      In terms of sheer courage or willpower, there was little difference between the two armies, with plenty of heroism displayed on both sides. But the Europeans—or the Franks, as they were called—had an undeniable advantage in horses and horsemanship. The European horses were bred to be larger and heavier than the Arab steeds, and the European armor was considerably thicker and heavier. This, to be sure, was not always an advantage. In the heat of a Middle Eastern summer, the crusaders sometimes wished to have the light armor of their Arab and Turkish foes.

      Richard, too, was a figure too large to be overlooked. Perhaps we exaggerate his importance on the battlefield, but he was a commanding presence and his mere appearance would lift the spirits of his men and depress those of his foes. This was evident at the Battle of Arstul, fought in September 1191.

      Was there any attempt to resolve the situation through negotiation?

      There were, in fact, a number of parleys, with Richard and Saladin each acting like the gallant knight: they sent each other fruit, delicacies, and even horses. But the most promising negotiation by far fell through when Richard declared he needed to seek the Pope’s permission before allowing his sister to marry a Muslim. One of Saladin’s emissaries proposed, perhaps in jest, that Richard’s sister Joan should marry Saladin’s brother Yusuf and that they should reign as king and queen of a multiethnic, multireligious Jerusalem. As unlikely as this seems, it was an appealing proposition.

      Richard and Saladin conducted numerous parleys, all the while seeking to learn of the other’s troop dispositions. When the battles and skirmishes resumed, it became clear that the Europeans had the advantage, and they pressed the Arabs and Turks nearly all the way to Jerusalem. In July 1192, Richard and his men were a mere eight miles from the city, close enough that they could see the morning sunlight reflect off the Dome of the Rock. Inexplicably Richard chose this moment to hold back, saying that the army was not ready to capture the Holy City.

      Why did Richard refuse to lead the attack on the Holy City?

      No one ever accused Richard the Lion-Heart of cowardice; rather, it appears that he felt guilty about some conduct in his past and genuinely believed God would not allow him to capture Jerusalem. When his knights and advisors pressed the matter, Richard refused. He would resign his position and serve as a private in the army, he declared, but he would not lead it in an attack on Jerusalem.

      In September 1192, Richard and Saladin came to an agreement. They signed a three-year truce under which fighting ceased, and the pilgrims of both faiths—Christian and Muslim—could visit the holy sites. Richard then turned and headed for home. The Third Crusade was an abject failure.

      After refusing to invade Jerusalem, Richard the Lion-Heart came to an agreement with Saladin to allow pilgrims into the city. The English king then returned home, ending the Third Crusade.

      What happened to Richard the Lion-Heart on his way home to England?

      When we relate the story, it sounds unreal, but it is, in truth, fully factual. Richard and about fifty of his officers attempted to cross Eastern Europe incognito, riding through the countryside. They were detected, and arrested, in Vienna, where the duke of Austria held them prisoner for a brief time before handing them over to Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor. Both the Austrians and the Germans resented Richard’s high-handed actions on the crusade, but this was by no means enough grounds on which to arrest and imprison a leader of that enterprise. The Germans held Richard for almost two years before his mother—Eleanor of Aquitaine—raised an enormous ransom and delivered it to the Holy Roman Emperor. Tradition has it that the price was 100,000 marks (or pieces) of silver. If so, this was probably at least three times the value of the annual budget of the Kingdom of England.

      Was nothing accomplished by the Third Crusade?

      The Third Crusade was one of the grandest of adventures (so long as one survived), but it accomplished virtually nothing.

THE FOURTH CRUSADE

      Why did Richard not lead the Fourth Crusade?

      Oh, how he wanted to! As soon as he returned to England, following his captivity in Germany, Richard set about raising men and money, intending to return to the Holy Land. Both his English and his Norman subjects were more suspicious, however, because they knew he had come so close (within eight miles) and turned back in 1192.

      Richard died in battle against the French in 1199, and the throne passed to his younger brother, John. Leadership of the Fourth Crusade, which commenced in 1202, went not to any of the monarchs, but to a group of top nobles. And when they looked for the best way to reach the Holy Land, these men decided to sail from Venice.

      What were the two wealthiest and most competitive merchant cities?

      Venice and Genoa, located on opposite sides of the Italian peninsula, became wealthy in the years following the success of the First Crusade. By 1202, these cities had become the richest in the Mediterranean. Venetian shipmasters were pleased to take the men of the Fourth Crusade aboard—for a handsome price—but not long after embarkation, they began to speak of how much easier, and more profitable, it would be to capture Constantinople.

      The city on the Bosporus was in a weak condition in 1204. The Byzantines had fought among themselves for years, and the willpower of the Byzantine leaders was at an all-time low. Even so, when the men of the Fourth Crusade came ashore to commence a siege, the Byzantines resisted fiercely. The western Europeans defeated their eastern cousins, capturing the city in August 1204. A puppet state was created, with Venice ruling the affairs of Constantinople for the next fifty years. Today’s tourist who admires sculptures in downtown Venice often does not realize that some of the finest of these came from Constantinople after the siege of 1204.

PHILIP VERSUS JOHN

      We know so much about Richard.Why do we hear so little of Philip II of France?

      When one looks at the two kings side by side, Richard was far more