The Handy Military History Answer Book. Samuel Willard Crompton

JIHAD

      Does jihad, indeed, mean “Holy War”?

      The meaning is close, but there are enough differences that we should not gloss over them. In its original use in the Koran, jihad is closer, in strict translation, to “struggle or conflict,” and it may reference an inner conflict as well as an external one. Therefore, although many Muslims use the word “jihad” in the context of “Holy War,” it is important for us to realize that this is not entirely accurate.

      In 1185, Saladin (1138–1193), the emir of Cairo and the lord of Damascus, proclaimed a jihad against the Christians in the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Saladin was worldly enough to recognize the differences that existed between the Christians of Antioch and those of Jerusalem, but his army—which was composed of Arabs, Turks, and Kurds—probably did not: the men quite likely thought that all Christians came from the devil and should be put to death. Much the same, however, can be said of the Christian Crusaders, some of whom were quite sophisticated while others were not.

      Who was defending Jerusalem?

      The Knights Templar and the Knights Hospitaller—who later became the Knights of Saint John—were more than sufficient to defend Jerusalem. Nearly a century of Middle Eastern warfare had revealed that the average mounted Christian knight could defeat his Arab or Turkish counterpart nine times out of ten (this was thanks to the size of his horse and the thickness of his armor). But in order for the knights to retain this advantage, they needed to remain on the defensive and allow Saladin to waste his resources attacking the city. Instead, they chose to go out and meet him.

      Even so, the Christians could have won, had they attempted to maneuver. Instead, they went straight at Saladin’s host, which was arranged with the Sea of Galilee at its back. Saladin allowed the crusaders to come close, but he contained them at two old hillsides known as the Horns of Hattin. The hills appeared to offer the Christians a good position, but Saladin knew the land better, and he had arranged it so the Christians had no wells nearby. Over the next ten hours, the Arabs and Turks pelted the Christians with arrows, many of them flame-tipped. What little shrubbery existed was soon set aflame, and quite a few Christians choked to death in the smoke-filled area.

THE THIRD CRUSADE

      First of all, why do we hear so little about the Second Crusade?

      Because so little was accomplished. In 1147, the Second Crusade was launched with the goal of retaking the Kingdom of Edessa from the Arabs and Turks. Many important European leaders, including King Louis VII of France and Queen Eleanor—better known as Eleanor of Aquitaine—went on the Second Crusade. They did not retake Edessa, however, and the entire crusade is better known for its parties and festivals than for any substantive accomplishments.

      Who was the first European leader to take up the Crusader cross?

      Immediately upon learning of the Battle of Hattin, Richard the Lion-Heart, Prince of England and Duke of Normandy, announced his intention to go to the Holy Land. Richard was the fiercest and most feared of Europe’s young leaders, but he was soon followed by two of the elder generation. His father, King Henry II of England, declared his intention to go on Crusade, as did Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, best known as Frederick Barbarossa (meaning “Frederick of the Red Beard”). King Philip Augustus of France, who was a bit younger than Richard, also announced that he would serve on the Crusade.

      Troubles and disagreements between the major monarchs would haunt the Crusade, however. Richard and Philip had once been close friends; they now disliked each other. Frederick Barbarossa and King Henry II were battle-tested warriors, but it was unlikely that two so contentious personalities could work well together.

      Who made the first move?

      King Henry II (ruled 1154–1189) was in the midst of preparing to go to the Holy Land when he, rather suddenly, faced a rebellion by Richard and two of his brothers. Instead of traveling 2,000 miles to fight the Muslims, the Christians were at war with each other, even within family lines. Richard defeated his father in battle on July 4, 1189, and Henry II died just two days later. Tradition has it that his last words were: “shame, shame, on a conquered king.”

       Why was Aquitaine so important?

      Located on the southwest side of France, Aquitaine was the major wine-producing section of the country (Cognac, Burgundy, and Chardonet had not yet come into their own). Beyond that, Aquitaine was the most civilized, or courtly, section of the kingdom. Life in Aquitaine, for the upper class at least, was a good deal more pleasant and refined than elsewhere.

      Richard became king of England immediately following his father’s death, but the actual coronation ceremony had to wait until September; by that time, Richard and his mother—the redoubtable Eleanor of Aquitaine—had taken possession of the kingdom as well as Henry II’s continental possessions. It would have made sense for Richard to remain in England and consolidate his position, but he was eager to be off on crusade, and within two months he was back in Aquitaine.

      How old and powerful was Frederick Barbarossa (ruled 1155–1190)?

      At sixty-nine, he was far older than the other monarchs, and he clearly looked down on the “boys,” as he considered Richard the Lion-Heart and Philip Augustus. Barbarossa was old enough to be their father, and he had been a young German noble on the Second Crusade, many years earlier. Barbarossa also fielded the largest force. Though records are scanty, he may have had 80,000 men in all—ranging from leading knights to launderers—and the German host was the scariest, so far as the Muslim foes were concerned.

      Barbarossa sent threatening letters to Saladin, who returned them in kind, and the Muslims braced for the German onslaught. Barbarossa intentionally avoided Constantinople. His men crossed the Hellespont at Gallipoli and pushed into Turkey. They there encountered many of the difficulties which had beset earlier invasion forces: hunger, thirst, and the seemingly endless number of mountains to cross. By the summer of 1190, Barbarossa’s Germans had come out of Turkey, however, and were close to the city of Antioch. They had taken some losses from disease and desertion, but the army was still imposing. Disaster struck before they could reach the Holy Land, however.

      How did Frederick Barbarossa die?

      Even though there were several eyewitnesses, Barbarossa’s death remains one of the most interesting and disputed of questions. Did the bridge he used collapse, throwing him into the water below? Or did he and a handful of his knights jump in for a swim after a morning ride? In either case, there is no doubt, however, that Barbarossa drowned.

      Kings, queens, and emperors often came to surprising ends, but drowning was not common. Barbarossa’s sudden death—probably caused by a sudden drop in blood pressure—panicked the Germans. Thousands of them took off right away, and many others deserted in the following days and weeks. By the time the Germans reached Antioch, they were reduced to about one-quarter of their original number. Led by Duke Henry of Swabia, these pushed on, vowing to bury Barbarossa’s bones in Jerusalem.

      Meanwhile, where were Richard and Philip?

      Richard and Philip rendezvoused in central France in the summer of 1190 and proceeded to the Mediterranean coast. Tensions between the French on one side and the English and Normans on the other surfaced almost at once, and the leaders did not do a great job of keeping the men together. It was small surprise, therefore, that the armies parted ways as they approached the Mediterranean. Philip and his Frenchmen embarked at Genoa, while Richard and his men worked their way slowly down the Italian coast. The two armies met again, at Messina, on the northeast corner of Sicily, and decided to winter there.

      Some truly comic-opera events followed. Richard’s mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine, arrived, bringing a Spanish princess whom Richard had promised to marry. Richard and Philip spent most of the winter quarreling, and their men did the same. Not until spring did the Franco-Norman-English forces depart, and even then they traveled in separate fleets. Richard took some time out from the crusade to attack—and conquer—the Island of