The Foundations of Science: Science and Hypothesis, The Value of Science, Science and Method. Henri Poincare

get news of which he learned to read the German newspapers. He outclassed the other boys of his age in all subjects and in 1873 passed highest into the École Polytechnique, where, like John Bolyai at Maros Vásárhely, he followed the courses in mathematics without taking a note and without the syllabus. He proceeded in 1875 to the School of Mines, and was Nommé, March 26, 1879. But he won his doctorate in the University of Paris, August 1, 1879, and was appointed to teach in the Faculté des Sciences de Caen, December 1, 1879, whence he was quickly called to the University of Paris, teaching there from October 21, 1881, until his death, July 17, 1912. So it is an error to say he started as an engineer. At the early age of thirty-two he became a member of l'Académie des Sciences, and, March 5, 1908, was chosen Membre de l'Académie Française. July 1, 1909, the number of his writings was 436.

      His earliest publication was in 1878, and was not important. Afterward came an essay submitted in competition for the Grand Prix offered in 1880, but it did not win. Suddenly there came a change, a striking fire, a bursting forth, in February, 1881, and Poincaré tells us the very minute it happened. Mounting an omnibus, "at the moment when I put my foot upon the step, the idea came to me, without anything in my previous thoughts seeming to foreshadow it, that the transformations I had used to define the Fuchsian functions were identical with those of non-Euclidean geometry." Thereby was opened a perspective new and immense. Moreover, the magic wand of his whole life-work had been grasped, the Aladdin's lamp had been rubbed, non-Euclidean geometry, whose necromancy was to open up a new theory of our universe, whose brilliant exposition was commenced in his book Science and Hypothesis, which has been translated into six languages and has already had a circulation of over 20,000. The non-Euclidean notion is that of the possibility of alternative laws of nature, which in the Introduction to the Électricité et Optique, 1901, is thus put: "If therefore a phenomenon admits of a complete mechanical explanation, it will admit of an infinity of Others which will account equally well for all the peculiarities disclosed by experiment."

      The scheme of laws of nature so largely due to Newton is merely one of an infinite number of conceivable rational schemes for helping us master and make experience; it is commode, convenient; but perhaps another may be vastly more advantageous. The old conception of true has been revised. The first expression of the new idea occurs on the title page of John Bolyai's marvelous Science Absolute of Space, in the phrase "haud unquam a priori decidenda."

      With bearing on the history of the earth and moon system and the origin of double stars, in formulating the geometric criterion of stability, Poincaré proved the existence of a previously unknown pear-shaped figure, with the possibility that the progressive deformation of this figure with increasing angular velocity might result in the breaking up of the rotating body into two detached masses. Of his treatise Les Méthodes nouvelles de la Méchanique céleste, Sir George Darwin says: "It is probable that for half a century to come it will be the mine from which humbler investigators will excavate their materials." Brilliant was his appreciation of Poincaré in presenting the gold medal of the Royal Astronomical Society. The three others most akin in genius are linked with him by the Sylvester medal of the Royal Society, the Lobachevski medal of the Physico-Mathematical Society of Kazan, and the Bolyai prize of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. His work must be reckoned with the greatest mathematical achievements of mankind.

      The kernel of Poincaré's power lies in an oracle Sylvester often quoted to me as from Hesiod: The whole is less than its part.

      He penetrates at once the divine simplicity of the perfectly general case, and thence descends, as from Olympus, to the special concrete earthly particulars.

      A combination of seemingly extremely simple analytic and geometric concepts gave necessary general conclusions of immense scope from which sprang a disconcerting wilderness of possible deductions. And so he leaves a noble, fruitful heritage.

      Says Love: "His right is recognized now, and it is not likely that future generations will revise the judgment, to rank among the greatest mathematicians of all time."

      George Bruce Halsted.

      

SCIENCE AND HYPOTHESIS

       Table of Contents

AUTHOR'S PREFACE TO THE

       TRANSLATION

       Table of Contents

      I am exceedingly grateful to Dr. Halsted, who has been so good as to present my book to American readers in a translation, clear and faithful.

      Every one knows that this savant has already taken the trouble to translate many European treatises and thus has powerfully contributed to make the new continent understand the thought of the old.

      Some people love to repeat that Anglo-Saxons have not the same way of thinking as the Latins or as the Germans; that they have quite another way of understanding mathematics or of understanding physics; that this way seems to them superior to all others; that they feel no need of changing it, nor even of knowing the ways of other peoples.

      In that they would beyond question be wrong, but I do not believe that is true, or, at least, that is true no longer. For some time the English and Americans have been devoting themselves much more than formerly to the better understanding of what is thought and said on the continent of Europe.

      To be sure, each people will preserve its characteristic genius, and it would be a pity if it were otherwise, supposing such a thing possible. If the Anglo-Saxons wished to become Latins, they would never be more than bad Latins; just as the French, in seeking to imitate them, could turn out only pretty poor Anglo-Saxons.

      And then the English and Americans have made scientific conquests they alone could have made; they will make still more of which others would be incapable. It would therefore be deplorable if there were no longer Anglo-Saxons.

      But continentals have on their part done things an Englishman could not have done, so that there is no need either for wishing all the world Anglo-Saxon.

      Each has his characteristic aptitudes, and these aptitudes should be diverse, else would the scientific concert resemble a quartet where every one wanted to play the violin.

      And yet it is not bad for the violin to know what the violon-cello is playing, and vice versa.

      This it is that the English and Americans are comprehending more and more; and from this point of view the translations undertaken by Dr. Halsted are most opportune and timely.

      Consider first what concerns the mathematical sciences. It is frequently said the English cultivate them only in view of their applications and even that they despise those who have other aims; that speculations too abstract repel them as savoring of metaphysic.

      The English, even in mathematics, are to proceed always from the particular to the general, so that they would never have an idea of entering mathematics, as do many Germans, by the gate of the theory of aggregates. They are always to hold, so to speak, one foot in the world of the senses, and never burn the bridges keeping them in communication with reality. They thus are to be incapable of comprehending or at least of appreciating certain theories more interesting than utilitarian, such as the non-Euclidean geometries. According to that, the first two parts of this book, on number and space, should seem to them void of all substance and would only baffle them.

      But that is not true. And first of all, are they such uncompromising realists as has been said? Are they absolutely refractory, I do not say to metaphysic, but at least to everything metaphysical?

      Recall the name of Berkeley, born in Ireland doubtless, but immediately adopted by the English, who marked a natural and necessary stage in the development of English philosophy.

      Is this not enough to show they are capable of making ascensions otherwise than in a captive balloon?