Animal Intelligence. George John Romanes

in search of aphides or cocci.' And, according to Huber, the principal office of the slaves in Switzerland is to search for aphides.

      Mr. Darwin also made the following observation:—'Desiring to ascertain whether F. sanguinea could distinguish the pupæ of F. fusca, which they habitually make into slaves, and which are an unwarlike species, from F. flava, which they rarely capture, and never without a severe fight,' he found 'it was evident that they did at once distinguish them;' for while 'they eagerly and instantly seized the pupæ of F. fusca, they were much terrified when they came across the pupæ, or even the earth from the nest, of F. flava, and quickly ran away; but in about a quarter of an hour, shortly after the little yellow ants had crawled away (from their nest having been disturbed by Mr. Darwin), they took heart and carried off the pupæ.'

      Concerning the origin of this remarkable instinct, Mr. Darwin writes:—

      As ants which are not slave-makers will, as I have seen, carry off pupæ of other species if scattered near their nests, it is possible that such pupæ originally stored as food might become developed, and the foreign ants thus unintentionally reared would then follow their proper instincts, and do what work they could. If their presence proved useful to the species which had seized them—if it were more advantageous to the species to capture workers than to procreate them—the habit of collecting pupæ, originally for food, might by natural selection be strengthened and rendered permanent for the very different purpose of raising slaves. When the instinct was once acquired, if carried out to a much less extent even than in our British F. sanguinea, which, as we have seen, is less aided by its slaves than the same species in Switzerland, natural selection might increase and modify the instinct, always supposing such modification to be of use to the species, until an ant was found as abjectly dependent on its slave as is the Formica rufescens.

      Ants do not appear to be the only animals of which ants make slaves; for there seems to be at least one case in which these wonderful insects enslave insects of another species, which therefore may be said to stand to the ants in the relation of beasts of burden. The case to which I allude is one that is recorded in Perty's 'Intellectual Life of Animals' (2nd ed. p. 329), and is as follows:—

      According to Audubon certain leaf-bugs are used as slaves by the ants in the Brazilian forests. When these ants want to bring home the leaves which they have bitten off the trees, they do it by means of a column of these bugs, which go in pairs, kept in order on either side by accompanying ants. They compel stragglers to re-enter the ranks, and laggards to keep up by biting them. After the work is done the bugs are shut up within the colony and scantily fed.

      Wars.—On the wars of ants a great deal might be said, as the facts of interest in this connection are very numerous; but for the sake of brevity I shall confine myself to giving only a somewhat meagre account.

      One great cause of war is the plundering of ants' nests by the slave-making species. Observers all agree that this plundering is effected by a united march of the whole army composing a nest of the slave-making species, directed against some particular nest of the species which they enslave. According to Lespès and Forel, single scouts or small companies are first sent out from the nest to explore in various directions for a suitable nest to attack. These scouts afterwards serve as guides to the marauding excursion. Forel saw several of these scouts of the species F. rufescens or Amazon carefully inspecting a nest of F. fusca which they had found, investigating especially the entrances. These are purposely made difficult to find by their architects, and it not unfrequently happens that after all precautions and inspections on the part of the invaders, an expedition fails on account of not finding the city gates.

      When the scouts have been successful in discovering a suitable nest to plunder, and have completed their strategical investigations of the locality to their satisfaction, they return straight to their own nest or fortress. Forel has then seen them walking about on the surface of their nest for a long time, as if in consultation, or making up their minds. Then some of them entered the nest, soon after which hosts of warriors streamed out of the entrances, and ran about tapping each other with their heads and antennæ. They then formed into column and set out to pillage the nest of the slave ants. The following is the account which Lespès gives of such expeditions:—

      They only take place towards the end of the summer and in autumn. At this time the winged members of the slave species (F. fusca and F. cunicularia) have left the nest, and the Amazons will not take the trouble to bring back useless consumers. When the sky is clear our robbers leave their town in the afternoon at about three or four o'clock. At first no order is perceptible in their movements, but when they are all gathered together they form a regular column, which then moves forward quickly, and each day in a different direction. They march closely pressed together, and the foremost always appear to be seeking for something on the ground. They are each moment overtaken by others, so that the head of the column is continually growing. They are in fact seeking the traces of the ants which they propose to plunder, and it is scent that guides them. They snuff over the ground like hounds following the track of a wild animal, and when they have found it they plunge headlong forward, and the whole column rushes on behind. The smallest armies I saw consisted of several hundred individuals, but I have also seen some four times as large. They then form columns which may be five mètres long, and as much as fifty centimètres wide. After a march, which often lasts a full hour, the column arrives at the nest of the slave species. The F. cuniculariæ, which are the strongest, offer keen opposition, but without much result. The Amazons soon penetrate within the nest, to come out again a moment later, while the assailed ants at the same time rush out in masses. During the whole time attention is directed solely to the larvæ and pupæ, which the Amazons steal while the others try to save as many as possible. They know very well that the Amazons cannot climb, so they fly with their precious burdens to the surrounding bushes or plants, whereto their enemies cannot follow them. They then pursue the retreating robbers and try to take away from them as much of their booty as possible. But the latter do not trouble themselves much about them, and hasten on home. On their return they do not follow the shortest road, but exactly the one by which they came, finding their way back by smell. Arrived at their nest, they immediately hand over their booty to the slaves, and trouble themselves no more about it. A few days afterwards the stolen pupæ or nymphæ emerge, without memory of their childhood, and immediately and without compulsion take part in all tasks.

      According to Büchner's account,[30]—

      From time to time the army makes a short halt, partly to let the rearguard close up, partly because different opinions arise as to the direction of the host, or because the place at which they are is unknown to them. Forel several times saw the army completely lose its way—an incident only once observed by Huber. Forel puts the number of warriors in such an army at from one hundred to more than two thousand. Its speed is on an average a mètre per minute, but varies much according to circumstances, and is naturally least when returning laden with booty. If the distance be very great, such bodily fatigue may at last be felt that the whole attack on the hostile nest is given up, and a retreat is begun; Forel once saw this happen after they had passed over a distance of two hundred and forty yards. Sometimes it seems as though, on coming within sight of the hostile nest, a kind of discouragement took possession of them, and prevented their making the attack. If the nest cannot at once be found, the whole army halts, and some divisions are sent forward to search for it, and these are gradually seen returning towards the centre. Forel also saw such an army only searching the first day, advancing zigzag, and with frequent halts, whereas on the following day it went forward to its aim swiftly and without delay, having found out the road. It seems that a single ant, even if it knows the way and the place, is not able alone to lead a large army, but that a considerable number must be employed in this duty. Mistakes as to the road occur with special ease during the return journey, because the several ants are laden with booty and cannot readily understand each other. Individual ants are then seen to wander about in every direction often for a long time, until they at last reach a spot known to them, and then advance swiftly to their goal. Many never come back at all. These mistakes easily occur when the robbers which have passed into a hostile nest do not come out again at the same holes whereby they entered, but by others at some distance—for instance, by a subterranean canal. Coming out thus in