The Secret Life of the Mind: How Our Brain Thinks, Feels and Decides. Mariano Sigman

      Then two puppets came in, successively and with a considerable amount of time between the two entrances. One puppet demonstrates an affinity with the baby and says that it loves the food the child has chosen. Then they leave and, just as before, there is another scene where the puppet with similar taste is playing with a ball, drops it and has to deal with two different puppets: one who helps and the other who steals the ball. Then babies are asked to pick up one of the two puppets and they show a clear preference for the helper. One who helps someone similar to us is good. But when the puppet who loses the ball is the one who had chosen the other food, the babies more often choose the ball robber. As with the thief, it is gastronomic Schadenfreude: the babies sympathize with the puppet that hassles the one with different taste preferences.

      Moral predispositions leave robust, and sometimes unexpected, traces. The human tendency to divide the social world into groups, to prefer our own group and go against others, is inherited, in part, from predispositions that are expressed very early in life. One example that has been particularly well studied is language and accent. Young children look more at a person who has a similar accent and speaks their mother tongue (another reason to advocate bilingualism). Over time, this bias in our gazes disappears but it transforms into other manifestations. At two years old, children are more predisposed to accept toys from those who speak their native language. Later, at school age, this effect becomes more explicit in the friends they choose. As adults, we are already familiar with the cultural, emotional, social and political segregations that emerge simply based on speaking different languages in neighbouring regions. But this is not only an aspect of language. In general, throughout their development, children choose to relate to the same type of individuals they would have preferentially directed their gaze at in early childhood.

      As happens with language, these predispositions develop, transform and reconfigure with experience. Of course, there is nothing within us that is exclusively innate; to a certain extent, everything takes shape on the basis of our cultural and social experience. This book’s premise is that revealing and understanding these predispositions can be a tool for changing them.

Émile and Minerva’s owl

      In Émile, or Concerning Education, Jean-Jacques Rousseau sketches out how an ideal citizen should be educated. The education of Émile would today be considered somewhat exotic. During his entire childhood there is no talk of morality, civic values, politics or religion. He never hears the arguments we parents of today so often go on about, like how we have to share, be considerate of others, among so many other outlines of arguments for fairness. No. Émile’s education is far more similar to the one Mr Miyagi gives Daniel LaRusso in The Karate Kid, pure praxis and no words.

      So, through experience, Émile learns the notion of property at twelve years old, at the height of his enthusiasm for his vegetable garden. One day he shows up with watering-pot in hand and finds his garden plot destroyed.

      But oh, what a sight! What a misfortune! [ … ] What has become of my labour, the sweet reward of all my care and toil? Who has robbed me of my own? Who has taken my beans away from me? The little heart swells with the bitterness of its first feeling of injustice.^fn12

      Émile’s tutor, who destroyed his garden on purpose, conspires with the gardener, asking him to take responsibility for the damage and gives him a reason to justify it. Thus the gardener accuses Émile of having ruined the melons that he’d planted earlier in the same plot. Émile finds himself embroiled in a conflict between two legal principles: his conviction that the beans belong to him because he toiled to produce them and the gardener’s prior right as legitimate owner of the land.

      The tutor never explains these ideas to Émile, but Rousseau maintains that this is the best possible introduction to the concept of ownership and responsibility. As Émile meditates on this painful situation of loss and the discovery of the consequences of his actions on others, he understands the need for mutual respect in order to avoid conflicts like the one has just suffered. Only after having lived through this experience is he prepared to reflect on contracts and exchanges.

      The story of Émile has a clear moral: not to saturate our children with words that have no meaning for them. First they have to learn what they mean through concrete experience. Despite this being a recurrent intuition in human thought, repeated in various landmark texts of the history of philosophy and education,^fn13 today hardly anyone follows that recommendation. In fact, almost all parents express an endless enumeration of principles through discourse that we contradict with our actions, such as on the use of telephones, what we should eat, what we should share, how we should say thank you, sorry and please, not be insulting, etc.

      I have the impression that the entire human condition can be expressed with a piñata. If a Martian arrived and saw the highly complex situation that suddenly arises when the papier mâché breaks and the rain of sweets falls out, it would understand all of our yearnings, vices, compulsions and repressions. Our euphoria and our melancholy. It would see the children scrambling to gather up the sweets until their hands can’t hold any more; the one who hits another to gain a time advantage over a limited resource; the father who lectures another kid to share their excessive haul; the overwhelmed youngster crying in a corner; the exchanges on the official market and the black market, and the societies of parents who form like micro-governments to avoid what Garrett Hardin called the tragedy of the commons.

I, me, mine and other permutations by George

      Long before becoming great jurists, philosophers, or noted economists, children – including the children that Aristotle, Plato and Piaget once were – already had intuitions about property and ownership. In fact, children use the pronouns my and mine before using I or their own names. This language progression reflects an extraordinary fact: the idea of ownership precedes the idea of identity, not the other way around.

      In early battles over property the principles of law are also rehearsed. The youngest children claim ownership of something based on the argument of their own desires: ‘It’s mine because I want it.’^fn14 Later, around two years of age, they begin to argue with an acknowledgement of others’ rights to claim the same property for themselves. Understanding others’ ownership is a way of discovering that there are other individuals. The first arguments outlined by children are usually: ‘I had it first’; ‘They gave it to me.’ This intuition that the first person to touch something wins indefinite rights to its usage does not disappear in adulthood. Heated discussions over a parking spot, a seat on a bus, or the ownership of an island by the first country to plant its flag there are private and institutional examples of these heuristics. Perhaps because of that, it is unsurprising that large social conflicts, like in the Middle East, are perpetuated by very similar arguments to those deployed in a dispute between two-year-olds: ‘I got here first’; ‘They gave it to me.’

Transactions in the playground, or the origin of commerce and theft

      On the local 5-a-side football pitch, the owner of the ball is, to a certain extent, also the owner of the game. It gives them privileges like deciding the teams, and declaring when the game ends. These advantages can also be used to negotiate. The philosopher Gustavo Faigenbaum, in Entre Ríos, Argentina, and the psychologist Philippe Rochat, in Atlanta, in the USA, set out to understand this world: basically, how the concept of owning and sharing is established in children, among intuitions, praxis and rules. Thus they invented the sociology of the playground. Faigenbaum and Rochat, in their voyage to the land of childhood,^fn15 researched swapping, gifts and other transactions that took place in a primary school playground. Studying the exchange of little figurines, they found that even in the supposedly naïve world of the playground, the economy is formalized. As children grow up, lending and the assignment