Fundamentals of Cancer Detection, Treatment, and Prevention. Surya K. De

test and colonoscopy every 10 yr. All adults aged 50–75: If smoking, testing for lung cancer every year; if not smoking and in good health, testing for lung cancer every 10 yr.

a) Women at the time of menopause should consider testing for endometrial cancer. Any unexpected vaginal bleeding or spotting should be reported to a physician immediately.

References

      1 1 Rossouw, J.E., Anderson, G.L., Prentice, R.L. et al. (2002). Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results from the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA 288 (3): 321–333.

      2 2 Anderson, G.L., Limacher, M., Assaf, A.R. et al. (2004). Effects of conjugated equine estrogen in postmenopausal women with hysterectomy: the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA 291 (14): 1701–1712.

      3 3 LaCroix, A.Z., Chlebowski, R.T., Manson, J.E. et al. (2011). Health outcomes after stopping conjugated equine estrogens among postmenopausal women with prior hysterectomy: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 305 (13): 1305–1314.

      4 4 Chlebowski, R.T., Anderson, G., Pettinger, M. et al. (2008). Estrogen plus progestin and breast cancer detection by means of mammography and breast biopsy. Archives of Internal Medicine 168 (4): 370–377.

      5 5 Chlebowski, R.T., Kuller, L.H., Prentice, R.L. et al. (2009). Breast cancer after use of estrogen plus progestin in postmenopausal women. New England Journal of Medicine 360 (6): 573–587.

      6 6 Chlebowski, R.T., Schwartz, A.G., Wakelee, H. et al. (2009). Estrogen plus progestin and lung cancer in postmenopausal women (Women's Health Initiative trial): a post‐hoc analysis of a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 374 (9697): 1243–1251.

      7 7 Crandall, C.J., Hovey, K.M., Andrews, C.A. et al. (2018). Breast cancer, endometrial cancer, and cardiovascular events in participants who used vaginal estrogen in the Women's Health Initiative Observational Study. Menopause 25 (1): 11–20.

      8 8 Holmberg, L. and Anderson, H. (2004). HABITS (hormonal replacement therapy after breast cancer – is it safe?), a randomised comparison: trial stopped. Lancet 363 (9407): 453–455.

      9 9 Pachman, D.R., Jones, J.M., and Loprinzi, C.L. (2010). Management of menopause‐associated vasomotor symptoms: current treatment options, challenges and future directions. International Journal of Women's Health 2: 123–135.

      10 10 Franco, O.H., Chowdhury, R., Troup, J. et al. (2016). Use of plant‐based therapies and menopausal symptoms: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. JAMA 315 (23): 2554–2563.

      11 11 Flegal, K.M., Kruszon‐Moran, D., Carroll, M.D. et al. (2016). Trends in obesity among adults in the United States. JAMA 315 (21): 2284–2291.

      12 12 Kushi, L.H., Doyle, C., McCullough, M. et al. (2012). American Cancer Society Guidelines on nutrition and physical activity for cancer prevention: reducing the risk of cancer with healthy food choices and physical activity. CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians 62 (1): 30–67. https://doi.org/10.3322/caac.20140. PMID: 22237782.

      13 13 Bleyer, A. (2007). Young adult oncology: the patients and their survival challenges. CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians 57: 242–255.

      14 14 Lam, J.U., Rebolj, M., Dugué, P.A. et al. (2014). Condom use in prevention of Human Papillomavirus infections and cervical neoplasia: systematic review of longitudinal studies. Journal of Medical Screening 21 (1): 38–50.

      15 15 Winer, R.L., Hughes, J.P., Feng, Q. et al. (2006). Condom use and the risk of genital human papillomavirus infection in young women. The New England Journal of Medicine 354: 2645–2654.

      16 16 Hales, C.M., Fryar, C.D., Carroll, M.D. et al. (2018). Trends in obesity and severe obesity prevalence in US youth and adults by sex and age, 2007–2008 to 2015–2016. JAMA 319 (16): 1723–1725.

      17 17 Thomson, C.A., McCullough, M.L., Wertheim, B.C. et al. (2014). Nutrition and physical activity cancer prevention guidelines, cancer risk, and mortality in the women's health initiative. Cancer Prevention Research (Philadelphia, Pa.) 1: 42–53.

      18 18 Rock, C.L., Thomson, C., Gansler, T. et al. (2020). American Cancer Society guideline for diet and physical activity for cancer prevention. CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians 70 (4): 245–271. https://doi.org/10.3322/caac.21591. Epub 9 June 2020. PMID: 32515498.

      19 19 Bagnardi, V., Rota, M., Botteri, E. et al. (2013). Light alcohol drinking and cancer: a meta‐analysis. Annals of Oncology 24 (2): 301–308.

      20 20 Bagnardi, V., Rota, M., Botteri, E. et al. (2015). Alcohol consumption and site‐specific cancer risk: a comprehensive dose‐response meta‐analysis. British Journal of Cancer 112 (3): 580–593.

      21 21 Cao, Y., Willett, W.C., Rimm, E.B. et al. (2015). Light to moderate intake of alcohol, drinking patterns, and risk of cancer: results from two prospective US cohort studies. BMJ 351: h4238.

      22 22 Chen, W.Y., Rosner, B., Hankinson, S.E. et al. (2011). Moderate alcohol consumption during adult life, drinking patterns, and breast cancer risk. JAMA 306 (17): 1884–1890.

      23 23 White, A.J., DeRoo, L.A., Weinberg, C.R., and Sandler, D.P. (2017). Lifetime alcohol intake, binge drinking behaviors, and breast cancer risk. American Journal of Epidemiology 186 (5): 541–549.

      24 24 Fan, X., Peters, B.A., Jacobs, E.J. et al. (2018). Drinking alcohol is associated with variation in the human oral microbiome in a large study of American adults. Microbiome 6 (1): 59.

      25 25 Rehm, J., Patra, J., and Popova, S. (2007). Alcohol drinking cessation and its effect on esophageal and head and neck cancers: a pooled analysis. International Journal of Cancer 121 (5): 1132–1137.

      26 26 Ahmad Kiadaliri, A., Jarl, J., Gavriilidis, G., and Gerdtham, U.G. (2013). Alcohol drinking cessation and the risk of laryngeal and pharyngeal cancers: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. PLoS One 8 (3): e58158.

      27 27 Chao, C., Haque, R., Caan, B.J. et al. (2010). Red wine consumption not associated with reduced risk of colorectal cancer. Nutrition and Cancer 62 (6): 849–855.

      28 28 Wu, C., Wang, Z., Song, X. et al. (2014). Joint analysis of three genome‐wide association studies of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma in Chinese populations. Nature Genetics 46 (9): 1001–1006.

      29 29 Vartolomei, M.D., Kimura, S., Ferro, M. et al. (2018). The impact of moderate wine consumption on the risk of developing prostate cancer. Clinical Epidemiology 10: 431–444.

      30 30 Yokoyama, A. and Omori, T. (2005). Genetic polymorphisms of alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenases and risk for esophageal and head and neck cancers exit disclaimer. Alcohol 35 (3): 175–185.

      31 31 Kanda, J., Matsuo, K., Suzuki, T. et al. (2009). Impact of alcohol consumption with polymorphisms in alcohol‐metabolizing enzymes on pancreatic cancer risk in Japanese. Cancer Science 100 (2): 296–302.

      32 32 Nelson, D.E., Jarman, D.W., Rehm, J. et al. (2013). Alcohol‐attributable cancer deaths and years of potential life lost in the United States. American Journal of Public Health 103 (4): 641–648.

      33 33 LoConte, N.K., Brewster, A.M., Kaur, J.S. et al. (2018). Alcohol and cancer: a statement of the American Society of clinical oncology. Journal of Clinical Oncology 36 (1): 83–93.

      34 34 Hashibe, M., Brennan, P., Chuang, S.C. et al. (2009). Interaction between tobacco and alcohol use and the risk of head and neck cancer: pooled analysis in the International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology Consortium. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 18 (2): 541–550.

      35 35 Grewal, P. and Viswanathen, V.A. (2012). Liver cancer and alcohol. Clinics in Liver Disease 16 (4): 839–850.

      36 36 Petrick, J.L., Campbell, P.T., Koshiol, J. et