Management of Radioactive Waste. Jean-Claude Amiard

activity 10⁷–10¹¹ 10³–10⁷ 10²–10⁶ 10–10⁵ High activity >10¹¹ >10⁷ >10⁶ >10⁵

      1.3.7. Comparisons of the various classifications

      Various comparisons can be made between the classifications of radioactive waste used by different countries.

1.3.7.1. American classification and IAEA recommendation

The classification recommended by the IAEA and that applied by the United States have no overlap (Table 1.5).

Table 1.5. Comparison of IAEA ([IAE 09a], GSG-1) and NRC ([NRC 15]) classifications (source: [NEA 16a])

NRC	Class A	Class B	Class C	Excess C or GTCC
IAEA	VLLW	LLW	ILW	HLW

      1.3.7.2. Comparison between the Belgian, French and Canadian radioactive waste classifications

      In Belgium, class A waste has a specific destination and class B and C waste are managed together. In France, the VLLW and LLW-SL categories are managed together, the AA-LL and HALL categories are managed together, while the FA-VL category is managed independently. For the three states, a distinction is made between current waste and historical waste [PAR 18].

Table 1.6. Comparison of radioactive waste classifications in Belgium, France and Canada (source: [PAR 18]). In brackets, the equivalences with the IAEA classification from 2009 [IAE 09a]

	Belgium	France	Canada
Number of categories	3	5	4
Classification by lifespan and activity level	A (LLW)B (ILW)C (HLW)	TFA (VSLW)FMA-VC (LLW)FA-VL (VLLW)MA-VL (ILW)HA-VL (HLW)	LLW (LLW)ILW (ILW)HLW (HLW + spent fuel)Mining waste
Other more vague categories	NORM, T-NORMRadiferWaste from future sanitationSpent fuelSpent MOX fuel	Waste without a channelFuel and MOX

1.3.8. Classification of sealed sources

For sealed sources, the IAEA [IAE 09a] recommends the classifications reported in Table 1.7.

Table 1.7. Examples of the use of the IAEA classification for disused sealed radioactive sources (source: [IAE 09a])

Type	Half-life	Activity	Volume	Examples
VSLW	<100 days	100 MBq	Small	90Y, 198Au (brachytherapy)
VSLW	<100 days	5 TBq	Small	192Ir (brachytherapy)
LLW	<15 years	<10 MBq	Small	3H, 60Co, 85Kr
ILW	<15 years	<100 TBq	Small	60Co (irradiators)
LLW	<30 years	<1 MBq	Small	137Cs (brachytherapy)
ILW	<30 years	<1 PBq	Small	90Sr (thickness gauges, thermoelectric generators), 137Cs (irradiators)
ILW	>30 years	<40 MBq	Small but with a large number of sources	Pu, Am, Ra (static eliminators)
ILW	>30 years	<10 GBq		226Ra, 241Am (gauges)

1.4. Origins of nuclear waste

Radioactive waste has multiple origins, which can be subdivided into three main sources: waste from the fuel cycle contributing to nuclear electricity (NFC, Nuclear Fuel Cycle), waste from other very varied origins (medicine, research, etc.) and waste resulting from a nuclear accident. Fuel cycle waste differs according to whether it comes from upstream or downstream plants or from nuclear power reactors in operation (Figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2. Diagram of the origins of radioactive waste (source: [OJO 14]). HLW: high-level waste; ILW: intermediate-level waste; LLW: low-level waste; NFC: nuclear fuel cycle; SRS: sealed radioactive sources. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/amiard/radioactive.zip

      1.4.1. The main radionuclides in radioactive waste

      The principal radionuclides in radioactive waste are very varied and can be classified into four categories. These are fission products (H, Se, Br, Kr, Rb, Sr, Y, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, I, Xe, Cs, Ba, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb and Dy), activation products (C, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, and Ni) and heavy nuclei (U, Nb and Zr), those that are both fission and activation products (Zr and Nb), heavy nuclei (U, Np, Pu, Am and Cm) and some elements with