Modeling, Simulation, and Optimization of Supercritical and Subcritical Fluid Extraction Processes. Zainuddin A. Manan

1.9 Decaffeination of coffee by supercritical CO₂ and absorber.Figure 1.10 Variation of the reduced density of CO₂ in the vicinity of criti...Figure 1.11 Solubility of components of homologous series in SC‐CO₂Figure 1.12 Solubility of palm oil in various SCFsFigure 1.13 Solubility of various SCFs in palm oilFigure 1.14 Selectivity (K‐factors) of FFA in palm oilFigure 1.15 Solubility calculation by method of dynamic experimental.Figure 1.16 Molecular structure of 1,1,1,2‐tetrafluoroethane.Figure 1.17 Crossover intersection in plot of solubility versus pressure at ...Figure 1.18 Extraction curves indicates the profile of overall extraction cu...

      2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Conceptual difference among three types of testing.Figure 2.2 Two approaches used in hybrid neural network with first principle...Figure 2.3 Single‐layer perceptron.Figure 2.4 Two‐layer perceptron.Figure 2.5 Common activation functions.Figure 2.6 Layer of S neurons.Figure 2.7 Linearly inseparable problems.Figure 2.8 Multilayer perceptronFigure 2.9 Schematic degrees of membership function for crisp and fuzzy sets...Figure 2.10 Determination of the membership function.Figure 2.11 Membership function types (generated using Matlab software).Figure 2.12 Sugeno‐style rule evaluation.Figure 2.13 Structure of a neuro fuzzy system.Figure 2.14 Structure of ANFIS.Figure 2.15 Global and local optimums.Figure 2.16 Schematic of crossover operation in GA.Figure 2.17 Schematic of the mutation operation in GA.

      3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Constituents of crude palm oilFigure 3.2 Thermal destruction of β‐caroteneFigure 3.3 Chemical refining – degumming and neutralization steps.Figure 3.4 Chemical refining–bleaching.Figure 3.5 Chemical refining – deodorization.Figure 3.6 Physical refining – degumming and bleaching.Figure 3.7 Physical refining – deacidification (by distillation) and deodori...

      4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 The structure of simple triglycerides.Figure 4.2 Chemical structure of oleic acid (C₁₇H₃₃COOH).Figure 4.3 Chemical structure of α‐tocopherol (C₂₉H₄₆O₂).Figure 4.4 Chemical structure of β‐carotene (C₄₀H₅₆).Figure 4.5 Calculations of T_c, P_c, and T_b from V_L,20 and P^sat (T₁)Figure 4.6 Density of coexisting phases for palm oil‐supercritical CO₂ syste...Figure 4.7 Density difference between coexisting phases for palm oil‐CO₂ sys...Figure 4.8 Loading of oil in CO₂Figure 4.9 Process flow diagram for SFE of palm oil using CO₂.Figure 4.10 Schematic diagram for simple countercurrent SFE process scheme....Figure 4.11 Schematic diagram for countercurrent (with reflux) SFE process s...Figure 4.12 Relative deviation of calculated vapor pressure from experimenta...Figure 4.13 Liquid phase compositions for the tripalmitin – supercritical COFigure 4.14 Fluid phase compositions for the tripalmitin – supercritical CO₂Figure 4.15 Liquid phase compositions for the triolein – supercritical CO₂ s...Figure 4.16 Fluid phase compositions for the triolein – supercritical CO₂ sy...Figure 4.17 Liquid phase compositions for the oleic acid – supercritical CO₂Figure 4.18 Fluid phase compositions for the oleic acid – supercritical CO₂ ...Figure 4.19 Liquid phase compositions for the α‐tocopherol – supercritical C...Figure 4.20 Fluid phase compositions for the α‐tocopherol – supercritical COFigure 4.21 Solubility of β‐carotene in supercritical CO₂.Figure 4.22 Phase equilibrium for a pseudo‐ternary CO₂ – TG – FFA system at ...Figure 4.23 Predicted distribution coefficients (this work) for palm oil com...Figure 4.24 Experimental distribution coefficientsFigure 4.25 Distribution coefficients of FFA (CO₂‐free basis). Experimental ...Figure 4.26 Distribution coefficients of TG (CO₂‐free basis). Experimental d...Figure 4.27 Separation factor between FFA and palm oil TG in a CPO–CO₂ syste...Figure 4.28 Comparison between the experiment data of Stoldt and Brunner (19...Figure 4.29 Effect of temperature and pressure on the solubility of palm oil...Figure 4.30 Effect of pressure on the yield of raffinate and solubility of p...Figure 4.31 Countercurrent SFE of CPO (without reflux): experimental of Gast...

      5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Schematic of element in SFEFigure 5.2 Membership functions for process variables.Figure 5.3 Membership functions of (a) Solvent flow rate, (b) Pressure, and ...Figure 5.4 Extraction from Anise‐comparison between NF model results (‐‐) an...Figure 5.5 Extraction from Anise‐comparison between GB model results (‐‐) an...

      6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Extraction yield of palm oil as a function of pressure and temper...Figure 6.2 Pareto chart indicating the significant level for each parameter....Figure 6.3 Comparison of extraction performance between supercritical CO₂ an...Figure 6.4 Comparison of palm oil solubility in terms of reduced pressure.Figure 6.5 Comparison of extraction performance between supercritical CO₂ an...

      7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Investigated pressure–temperature range for countercurrent SFE pr...Figure 7.2 Effect of the number of stages on the recovery of FFA.Figure 7.3 Effect of the number of stages on the recovery of refined palm oi...Figure 7.4 Effect of S/F ratio on the %FFA in the extract and raffinate.Figure 7.5 Effect of S/F ratio on the raffinate recovery.Figure 7.6 Effect of reflux ratio on the composition of the top and bottom p...Figure 7.7 Effect of reflux ratio on the recovery of palm oil (S/F ratio of ...Figure 7.8 Flowsheet of the countercurrent SFE process for palm oil refining...Figure 7.9 Influence of temperature and pressure on the extraction yield at Figure 7.10 Influence of mass flow rate on the optimum temperature at L = 0....Figure 7.11 Influence of mass flow rate on the optimum pressure at L = 0.165...Figure 7.12 Schematic diagram of supercritical CO₂ extraction system.Figure 7.13 Sensitivity analysis of the profit.Figure 7.14 Effect of temperature and pressure on the extraction yield at L ...Figure 7.15 Effect of mass flow rate on the optimum temperature at L = 0.165...Figure 7.16 Influence of mass flow rate on the optimum pressure at L = 0.165...Figure 7.17 Three‐dimensional plot of oil yield as a function of temperature...Figure 7.18 Effect of temperature and extraction cycle on the oil yield (con...

      8 Appendix BFigure B.1 Calculated liquid‐phase and supercritical fluid‐phase composition...

      9 Appendix CFigure C.1 Flash calculation results at 24 MPa and 50 °C.

      Guide

      1  Cover Page

      2  Title Page

      3  Copyright Page

      4  Preface

      5  Nomenclature

      6  Table of Contents

      7  Begin Reading

      8  Appendix A Calculation of the Composition for Palm Oil TG (Lim et al. 2003 )

      9  Appendix B Calculation of Distribution Coefficient and Separation Factor (Lim et al. 2003 )

      10  Appendix C Calculation of Palm Oil Solubility in Supercritical CO2 (Lim et al. 2003 )

      11