Pain Medicine at a Glance. Beth B. Hogans

nothing can be done. Others have become dependent on pain medicines or recurrent procedures and have fallen into a role of passivity and conditioned behavior. Some patients have experienced healthcare harms. All these may be suspicious until a healthy therapeutic alliance is built.

Figure 10.1 Affect and cognition are both communicated in the pain‐focused clinical visit. (a) Schematic of communication. (b–d) Trainees acquire skillfulness in managing cognitive information and enhancing the affective dimensions of the interaction. This develops from unidirectional (b) to effective cognitive communication, reducing affective overloading (c) to effective, bidirectional communication that is supportive of patient and rewarding for provider.

      Source: Adapted from Murinson (2015) and Murinson et al. (2008).

Remember that safety of patient and provider is the primary concern in any clinical setting. If a patient is overly personal, aggressive, or threatening, seek help immediately (Figure 10.2). Curse words or a harsh tone of voice may be early signs of an evolving hostile state, it is important to maintain an atmosphere of mutual respect and insist that the boundaries of a professional relationship are respected. Patients who are seeking opioids from a position of dependency will sometimes be overly agreeable or flattering, Exercise caution with the patient who seems too nice, showering you or your staff with compliments, gifts, or favors. Receipt of gifts and acceptance of personal favors is not acceptable as this undermines the provider's ethical stance. Remember that in many patients, some resistance to a new idea may signal the change process is starting, indicating that the patient is engaging and seriously considering behavior change. Some patients have difficulty expressing emotions, these patients may need support from you to open to their feelings, a reflective statement such as “It seems like this might be really hard for you” can give the patient permission to share and can help a clinician identify specific ways to help (Roter et al. 2006). “Cognitive impairment is addressed in Chapter 51, pediatric pain assessment in Chapter 50, and pain assessment in the context of medication or drug dependence in Chapter 46.”

Figure 10.2 Recognizing and modulating the emotional range of a pain‐focused clinical visit.

      In summary, communication barriers to pain assessment take many forms. Some pertain to the mechanics of communication while others primarily impact the affective dimensions. Openness, skill, adaptability, and compassion are necessary in building a therapeutic alliance to overcome pain.

References

      1 Murinson, B. (2015). Expertise, skillfulness and professional comportment: preparing clinical trainees for effectiveness in pain care. Invited lecture at Pain Research, Education and Policy Program, Tufts School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L_pY7cTDygs (accessed 20 December 2017).

      2 Murinson, B.B., Agarwal, A.K., and Haythornthwaite, J.A. (2008). Cognitive expertise, emotional development, and reflective capacity: clinical skills for improved pain care. The Journal of Pain 9 (11): 975–983.

      3 Roter, D.L., Frankel, R.M., Hall, J.A., and Sluyter, D. (2006). The expression of emotion through nonverbal behavior in medical visits. Mechanisms and outcomes. Journal of General Internal Medicine 21 (Suppl 1): S28–S34. Review.