333
30
|
20/90
|
96.9
|
[65]
|
|
Waste fish oil
|
Sulfonated activated carbon
|
Esterification
|
14.85:1
|
11.4%
|
328
|
60
|
20/296
|
56
|
[66]
|
|
Waste cooking oil
|
Sulfonated carbon catalyst from cyclodextrin
|
Transesterification
|
16:1
|
11.5%
|
390
|
8.8
|
25 kHz
|
90.8
|
[67, 68]
|
|
Palm fatty acid distillate
|
Sulfonated cellulose
|
Transesterification
|
6:1
|
3%
|
333
|
180
|
20/120
|
81.2
|
[69]
|
|
Waste cooking oil
|
Tri–potassium phosphate
|
Transesterification
|
6:1
|
3%
|
323
|
90
|
22/375
|
92
|
[70]
|
|
Crude Jatropha oil
|
carbon–supported heteropoly acid
|
Transesterification
|
20:1
|
4%
|
323
|
60
|
20/400
|
87.33
|
[71]
|
|
Crude Jatropha oil
|
Cesium doped heteropoly acid
|
Transesterification
|
25:1
|
3%
|
327
|
34
|
20/400
|
90.5
|
[72]
|
Table 2.1(C) Ultrasound-assisted immobilized enzyme catalysed biodiesel synthesis case studies.
|
Oil (source)
|
Enzyme
|
Support
|
Molar ratio (alcohol to oil)
|
Enzyme loading (w/w)
|
Reaction temperature (K)
|
Time (min)
|
Ultrasonic frequency/power (kHz/W)
|
Yield (%)
|
Reference
|
|
Mixed oil
|
Lipase from Thermomyces lanuginosus
|
Commercially immobilized
|
7.64:1
|
3.55%
|
309
|
120
|
35/35
|
90
|
[73]
|
|
Soybean and Waste frying oil
|
Lipozyme TL-IM, RM-IM Novozym 435
|
Commercially immobilized
|
9:1
|
15%
|
298
|
720
|
40/220
|
90
|
[74]
|
|
Macauba and Soybean oil
|
Lipase from Candida antarctica
|
Macroporous anionic resin
|
3:1
|
20%
|
343
|
120
|
20/40
|
88
|
[75]
|
|
Canola oil
|
Lipase from Candida rugosa
|
Commercially immobilized
|
5:1
|
0.23%
|
303
|
90
|
20/40-200
|
99
|
[76]
|
|
Waste lard
|
Lipase B from Candida antarctica
|
Commercially immobilized
|
4:1
|
6%
|
323
|
20
|
20/500
|
96.8
|
[77]
|
|
Waste tallow
|
Lipase B from Candida antarctica
|
Commercially immobilized
|
4:1
|
6%
|
323
|
20
|
20/500
|
85.6
|
[78]
|
|
Sunflower oil
|
Lipase from T. lanuginosu
|
Immobilized on silica granules
|
3:1
|
3%
|
313
|
240
|
40/120
|
96
|
[79]
|
|
Macauba coconut oil
|
Lipase B from Candida antarctica
|
Macroporous anionic resin
|
9:1
|
20%
|
338
|
30
|
40/132
|
70
|
[80]
|
|
Soybean oil
|
Lipase B from Candida antarctica
|
Macroporous anionic resin
|
3:1
|
20%
|
343
|
60
|
40/132
|
78
|
[81]
|
|
Waste cooking oil
|
Lipase from T. lanuginose
|
Silica-iron oxide nano- particles
|
4.34:1
|
43.6%
|
303
|
